莫里尔法案名词解释范文(精选6篇)
法案是指有提案权的主体向有立法权的国家机关所提出的有关制定、修改和废止规范性法律文件的建议，包括法律案、行政法规案、地方性法规案、规章案等。法案一般包括有关草案,其中法律案应当包括法律草案。也就是说，在全国人民代表大会上，提出法律案的人必须提， 以下是为大家整理的关于莫里尔法案名词解释6篇 , 供大家参考选择。
莫里尔法案名词解释6篇
第一篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
名词解释名词解释名词解释名词解释
1.募集设立：又称渐次设立，是指由发起人认购公司应发行股份的一部分，其余股份向社会募集或者向特定对象募集而设立的公司。
2.公司债券：是指公司依照法定程序发行、约定在一定期限还本付息的有价证券。 可转换公司债券：是指依照法定程序发行，在一定期间内依据约定的条件可以转换成股票的公司债券。
3.有限责任公司：是指根据公司法设立的，公司以其全部财产对公司的债务承担责任，股东以其认缴的出资额为限对公司承担责任的企业法人。
4.国有独资公司：是指国家单独出资、由国务院或者地方人民政府委托本级人民政府国有资产监督管理机构履行出资人职责的有限责任公司。 一人有限责任公司：是指只有一个自然人股东或者一个法人股东的有限责任公司。
5.股份有限公司：是指依照公司法设立的，全部资本分为等额股份，公司以其全部财产对公司的债务承担责任，股东以其认购的股份为限对公司承担责任的企业法人。
6.上市公司：是指其股票在证券交易所上市交易的股份有限公司。
6.关联关系：是指公司控股股东、实际控制人、董事、监事、高级管理人员与其直接或者间接控制的企业之间的关系，以及可能导致公司利益转移的其他关系。
7.企业破产制度：是指在债务人不能清偿到期债务的情况下，在法院的主持下，将债务人的全部财产集中起来对债务人进行公平清偿的制度。
8.债权人会议：是指在人民法院受理破产案件后，为保障债权人的合法权益、表达债权人的意志和统一债权人的意见而由已申报债权的债权人组成的临时性机构。
9.债务人的财产：是指破产申请受理时属于债务人的全部财产，以及破产申请受理后至破产程序终结前债务人取得的财产。
10.别除权：是指破产宣告前依法成立的对破产人的特定财产享有担保权的人享有不依赖破产程序，就该特定财产优先受偿的权利。
11.一般取回权：是指人民法院受理破产申请后，对于债务人占有的不属于债务人的财产，该财产的权利享有的向管理人取回该财产的权利。
12.出卖人取回权：是指人民法院受理破产申请时，出卖人已将买卖标的物向作为买受人的债务人发运，债务人尚未收到且未付清全部价款时，出卖人享有的取回在运途中标的物的权利。
13.抵消权：是指债务人在破产申请受理后，在立案前与债务人互负债务的债权人享有的不依破产程序，而以其对该债务人的债权和所欠债务在对等数额内相互抵消的权利。
14.重整：是在企业无力偿债但有复苏希望的情况下，经债权人同意，允许企业继续经营，实现债务调整和企业重组，使企业摆脱困境、走向复兴的一项制度。
15.破产和解：是指人民法院受理和解申请或破产申请后、宣告债务人破产前，债务人和债权人会议就债务人延期清偿债务、减少债务数额等事项达成和解协议，经人民法院认定后，终止破产程序的一种制度。
16.破产宣告：是指人民法院对符合破产条件的债权人，依法作出裁定，宣告债务人破产实施清算的行为。
17.格式条款：是一方当事人为了重复使用而预先拟定，并在订立合同时未与对方协商的条款。
18.承诺：是指受要约人收到要约后按照要约所规定的时间和方式，用诺言或行动对要约表示完全同意的一种法律行为。
19.缔约过失责任：是指缔约人在订立合同的过程中，因故意或过失违背诚实信用原则，给对方当事人的利益造成损失所应承担的责任。
20.合同效力：是指已经成立的合同在当事人之间产生的法律效力。
21.效力待定合同：是指虽已成立，但因其主体有瑕疵，不完全满足有效要件的规定，致使其效力不确定的合同。 可变更或撤销的合同：是指合同订立后，因意思表示不真实，可由当事人行使撤销权使其归于无效，或行使变更权使其内容变更的合同。
22.合同履行：是指合同生效后，当事人按照法律规定或者合同约定，全面、适当地履行合同义务的行为。
23.提存：是指债务人将到期后因债权人原因无法清偿的标的物交有关部门保存，以消灭合同关系的行为。
24.违约责任：是指合同当事人违反有效合同的约定，不履行或不安全履行合同义务，所应承担的法律责任。
25.担保：是指在民商事法律关系中发生的，保证债务人清偿债务，债权人实现债权的法律制度。
26.反担保：是指第三人为债务人向债权人提供担保时，债务人应第三人的要求而为第三人所提供的担保。
27.保证：是指保证人和债权人约定，当债务人不履行债务时，保证人按约定向债权人履行债务或承担责任的行为。
28.一般保证合同：是指当事人在合同中约定，只有在债务人不履行债务时，才由保证人承担保证责任的合同。
29.连带责任保证合同：是指当事人在合同中约定，保证人对债务人的债务承担连带责任的合同。在这种合同中只要债务人到期未履行债务，债权人就可以要求保证人在其保证的范围内承担保证责任。
30.抵押：是指债务人或者第三人不转移对自己特定财产的占有，约定将该财产作为债权的担保，当债务人不履行债务时，或者发生当事人约定的实现抵押权的情形时，债权人有权依法将该财产折价、变卖或拍卖，并就所得价款优先受偿。
31.质押：是指为担保债务的履行，债务人或者第三人将其财产或权利出质给债权人占有，将该财产作为担保，在债务人不履行到期债务或者发生当事人约定的实现质权的情形，债权人有权就该质押财产折价或者拍卖、变卖，并就其卖得价款优先受偿的担保制度。
32.留置：是指债务人不按照合同约定的期限履行债务，债权人可以扣留已经合法占有的债务人的动产，经过约定的或法律规定的一定的宽限期债务人仍不履行债务的，债权人有权就该动产优先受偿的担保制度。
33.定金：是合同当事人一方预先交付给另一方货币作为债权的担保。
34.证券：是指发行人依法发行的表示持券人享有的某种特定权利的凭证。 证券登记结算机构：是为证券交易提供集中登记、存管与结算服务，不以营利为目的的法人。
35.证券发行：是指发行人依照法定条件和程序向社会公众或特定的人出售证券的法律行为。 上市公司的收购：是指投资者通过购买上市目标公司股票，以取得对目标公司的管理权或者控制权，进而实现对目标公司的兼并或实现其他产权性交易行为。
36.要约收购：是指收购人通过向目标的管理层和目标公司的股东发出购买其所持该公司股份的书面意思表达，并按照其依法公告的收购要约所规定的收购条件、收购价格、收购期限以及其他规定事项，收购目标公司股份的收购方式。
37.协议收购：是指收购人与被收购的目标公司股东依照法律、行政法规的规定，以协议方式进行股份转让的收购方式。
38.票据：是出票人依票据法签发的，约定由自己或委托付款人在见票时或者在票据指定的日期向收款人或者持票人无条件支付确定的金额的一种有价证券。
39.汇票：是出票人签发的，委托付款人在见票时或者在指定日期无条件支付确定的金额给收款人或持票人的票据。
40.本票：是出票人签发的，承诺自己在见票时无条件支付确定的金额给收款人或者持票人的票据。
41.支票：是出票人签发的，委托办理支票存款业务的银行或者其他金融机构在见票时无条件支付确定的金额给收款人或持票人的票据。
42.票据关系：是指票据当事人之间，基于票据行为，在票据上所发生的法律上的债权债务关系。
43.非票据关系：是指票据关系以外的、与票据行为有关的当事人之间依照法律的规定或当事人的约定所发生的权利和义务关系。
44.狭义的票据行为：是指票据当事人以发生票据债务为目的,并以在票据上签章为权利义务成立要件的法律行为。
45.票据的伪造：是指无权限人假冒他人或虚构他人名义签章的行为。
46.票据的变造：是指没有合法更改权的人在已成立的票据上变更签章以外的记载事项的行为。
47.票据的更改：是指有更改权的人明示更改票据上记载事项的行为。
48.追索权：是指持票人在依法行使付款请求权而不能得到票款时，依法向票据的背书人、出票人以及汇票的其他债务人请求支付票据金额、利息和其他法定费用的权利。
49.出票：是指出票人签发票据并将其交付给收款人的票据行为。
50.背书：是指单上记载有关事项并签章的票据行为。
51.涉外票据：是指出票、背书、承兑、保证、付款等行为中，既有发生在中华人民共和国境内又有发生在中华人民共和境外的票据。
52.保险：是指投保人根据合同约定，向保险人支付保险费，保险人对于合同约定的可能发生的事故因其发生所造成的财产损失承担赔偿保险金责任，或者当被保险人死亡、伤残、疾病或者达到合同约定的年龄、期限是承担给付保险金责任的商业保险行为。
53.保险代理人：是根据保险人的委托，向保险人收取代理手续费，并在保险人授权的范围内代为办理保险业务的单位或个人。
54.保险经纪人：是基于投保人的利益，为投保人与保险人订立保险合同提供中介服务，并依法收取佣金的人。
55.财产保险合同：是以财产及其有关利益为保险标的的保险合同，是投保人与保险人约定财产保险权利义务的协议。
56.代位求偿权：是指如果保险事故的发生所导致的被保险人的损失是由于第三人造成的，被保险人有权向保险人请求赔偿，但是被保险人在从保险人处获得了赔偿后，必须将对第三人的求偿权让渡给保险人。
57.人身保险合同：投保人向保险人支付保险费，保险人对呗保险人在保险期间内因保险单载明的意外事故、灾难及衰老等原因而导致被保险人死亡、疾病、丧失劳动能力或退休时，给付被保险人或受益人一定的保险金额的合同。
58.保险公司：是指投资人以营利为目的依法设立的，经营保险业务的企业法人。
59.海商法：是调整海上运输关系、船舶关系的法律规范的总称。
60.船舶所有权：是指船舶所有权人依法对其船舶享有占有、使用、收益和处分的权利。
61.船舶优先权：是指海事请求人依照《海商法》的规定，向船舶所有人、光船承租人、船舶经营人提出海事请求，对产生该海事请求的船舶享有优先受偿的权利。 海上货物运输：是指承运人收取运费，负责将托运人的货物经海路由一港运至另一港的合同，也是规定海上运输中承运人与托运人权利义务的合同。
62.提单：是用以证明海上货物运输合同和货物已由承运人接管或装船，以及承运人保证据此交付货物的单证。
63.海上拖航合同：是指承拖方用拖轮将被拖物经海路从一地拖至另一地，而由被拖方支付拖航费得合同。
64.船舶碰撞：是指船舶在海上或者与海相同的可航水域发生接触造成损害的事故。
65.海难救助：是对在海上或者与海相通的可航水域遇险的船舶和其他财产进行的救助。
66.海难救助款项：是指被救助方依法律规定或合同的约定，应当向救助方支付的任何救助
67.共同海损：是指在同一海上航程中，船舶、货物和其他财产遭遇共同危险，为了共同安全，有意地、合理地采取措施所直接造成的特殊牺牲、支付的特殊费用。
68.海上保险合同：是指保险人按照约定，对被保险人遭受保险事故造成保险标的的损失和产生的责任负责赔偿，而由保险人支付保险费的合同。
69.委付：是指在保险标的物发生推定全损时，被保险人如果要索赔损失必须将标的物可能的余值转移给保险人，即对该标的物进行委付。
70.法定资本人？是指在公司设立时，虽然要再公司章程中确定注册资本总额，但发起人只需认足或缴足部分股份，公司就可正式成立，其余的股份，授权董事会根据公司生产经营情况和证券市场行情在随时发行的公司资本制度
71.认可资本制?是指在公司设立时，对公司章程中所确定的注册资本，发起人只认购一部分，未认购的部分授权董事会根据需要随时发行，但首次发行的股份不得少于法定比例，发行股份的授权也许在一定期限内行使的公司资本制度
72.发起设立？又称单纯设立，是指由发起人认足公司全部股本而设立的公司
73.商法？规范规范市场主体和商事交易的法律规范的总称。
74.授权资本制是指公司设立时，虽然要在公司章程中确定注册资本总额，但发起人只需认足或缴足部分股份，公司就可正式成立，其余的股份，授权董事会根据公司生产经营情况和证券市场行情再随时发行的公司资本制度。
75.严格责任原则又称无过错责任原则，是指不论违约方主观上是否有过错，只要其有不履行或不完全履行合同义务的行为，就应当承担违约责任。
76.票据的保证是指票据债务人以外的人，为担保被保证的票据债务人履行其票据债务，承诺与被保证人对持票人承担连带责任而在票据上所为的票据行为。
77.法定资本制是指在设立公司时，注册资本由全体股东足额认缴后，股东可以在公司登记成立前后的一定期限内一次或分次缴付出资的资本制度。
78.否认权是指对于债务人极其负责人实施的危害债权人利益的行为，管理人享有的请求人民法院撤销该行为或确认该行为无效，从而追回所转移财产的权利。
79.商主体？指具有商法上的资格或能力、能够以自己的名义从事商行为，享有商法上的权利并承担商法上的义务的组织和个人。
80.商行为？是指具有商行为能力的商主体从事以营利为目的的营业性法律行为。
81.商行为代理？是指商事代理人以营利为目的的接受被代理人委托，在委托的范围内以符合经济的原则同第三人建立商事法律关系，其法律后果由被代理人承担的商行为
82.商号？是指商主体在营业活动中所使用的与其他商主体相互区别的称号。
83.商业登记？是指商业发起人或筹办人为设立、变更或终止商主体资格，依照法律法规所规定的内容和程序，向营业所在地主管机关申请登记并被主管机关核准注册登记的法律行为。
84.个人独资企业？是指依法在中国境内设立的，由一个自然人投资，财产为投资人个人所有，投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。
85.合伙企业？是指两人或两人以上的合伙人订立合伙协议，共同投资，合伙经营，共享收益，至少有一个以上的合伙人对企业债务承担无限责任的营利性组织。
86.入伙？是指两人或两人以上的合伙人订立合伙协议，共同投资，合伙经营，共享收益，至少有一个以上的合伙人对企业债务承担无限责任的营利性组织。
87.退伙？是指合伙企业存续期间，合伙人依法退出在合伙企业的财产份额，消除合伙人资格的行为，退伙的情形包括声明退伙、法定退伙和除名退伙。
第二篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
名词解释：
1、实验针灸学：是在中医理论指导下，运用现代科学技术和方法，主要开展针灸理论、针灸作用规律、针灸作用机制和针灸应用技术等相关研究的一门新兴学科；是针灸学科一个新的分支；也是研究针灸神经生物学机制的重要基础。
2、得气：是指针刺穴位后产生的经气感应。
3、循经感传现象：是指以针刺、低频脉冲电等方法刺激穴位时，人体出现酸、麻、重、胀等特殊感觉，从被刺激的穴位开始，沿着经脉循行路线传导。
4、经穴-脏腑相关：反映了经脉穴位与脏腑之间的一种双向关系，即脏腑生理或病理改变可通过多种形式反映到体表的相应穴位上；刺激体表穴位又可对相应脏腑的生理功能和病理改变起到一定的调节作用。
5、牵涉痛：是指当某一内脏器官有病变时，患者除感觉患病器官的局部不适或疼痛外，尚可在远离该器官的体表某部皮肤或深部组织发生痛觉过敏。
海氏带:当一些内脏器官患病时，往往在相关部位的皮肤出现痛觉过敏，这种痛觉过敏的皮肤部位即称为海氏带或痛觉过敏带。
6、穴位功能特异性:是指穴位与非穴位、不同穴位之间在主治和功能作用上所存在的差异。
7、针灸作用的时间效应：对穴位进行针灸刺激时，针灸效应的发生、发展呈现一个渐进的时间过程，分为潜伏期、上升期、高峰期和下降期。
时效曲线：用直角坐标图表示针效与时间的关系。
8、针麻诱导期：在实施针麻手术之前，对选定的穴位预先进行一段时间针刺刺激，至镇痛效果达到可以手术这段时间。（一般在25~40min左右）
9、针刺耐受：是指由于长时间针刺或反复多次针刺后，针刺镇痛效应降低的一种现象。
10、针刺后效应：停止针刺后继续存在的针刺效应
11、疼痛：是一种与组织损伤或潜在损伤相关的不愉快的主观感觉和情感体验，它包含痛感觉和痛反应两个成分。
痛阈（或痛反应阈）：是指从刺激开始到引起疼痛感觉或运动反应的最小刺激量。
耐痛阈：是指能耐受疼痛的最大刺激量
12、针刺麻醉：是指用针刺止痛方法来预防手术中的疼痛及减轻生理功能紊乱，在患者清醒状态下施行手术的一种麻醉方法。
13、吞噬能力：指100个白细胞中吞噬细菌的白细胞所占的比例。
吞噬指数：指100个白细胞中，能够吞噬细菌的白细胞所吞噬细菌的平均个数。
针灸作用：针灸的镇痛作用、神经-内分泌-免疫网络的调控作用和对失调的脏腑器官功能的调整作用。
第一章针灸作用的基础研究
第一节：
1、穴位功能主要表现在两个方面：感受刺激、反应病症
2、穴位感受器的特点：(后面要加具体的内容)
1穴位可以感受多种形式的刺激，2穴位对不同形式的刺激有不同的适应性，3穴位对不同形式刺激的感觉阈不同
3、穴位病理反应的表现形式：感觉异常、组织形态改变、生物物理特性改变
5、得气机制：针感的形成包括感受器、传入神经、脊髓通路、脑内通路几个环节。
手下感的实质：穴区肌肉轻微的紧张性收缩。
手下感机制：针刺信息由外周传入神经通路进入中枢，经中枢整合调制后，一方面形成针感，另一方面通过脊髓?-传出系统随躯体神经到达相应支配区穴位下的肌梭，引起梭内肌收缩和肌电发放，以及局部肌纤维收缩，后者经针柄传于施针者指下，从而形成沉紧的手下感
第二节：
1、循经感传的基本特征：1循经扩布，2趋向病所，3宽度和深度不均，4感觉性质多样，5慢速传导，6双向循行和回流现象，7可以阻滞，8影响脏腑功能活动
2、常见的经络现象及其特点：
常见的经络现象
（1）生理现象——循经感传现象
（2）病理现象——循经性感觉障碍和可见的经络现象:①循经性感觉障碍；②可见的经络现象:循经性皮肤病、循经性皮肤血管神经性反应
特点：（1）循经感传现象基本特征：1）循经扩布;2)趋向病所；3）宽度和深度不均；4）感觉性质多样；5）慢速传导;6）双向循行和回流现象；7）可以阻滞：①机械压迫②局部降温③局部注射普鲁卡因和生理盐水，亦称张力阻滞④皮肤触觉刺激⑤外加磁场刺激
第三节：
3、牵涉痛特征：
①牵涉痛出现的部位，多发生在与病变器官同一神经节段的皮节区或肌节区。
②牵涉痛一般均为可逆，当去除内脏病变后，其牵涉痛也随之消失。
③皮肤过敏带不仅对接触、压迫、牵引等出现感觉过敏，而且皮下组织硬度也发生变化，有时用手可以触到有结节和条索状物等，有的还可见皮肤变厚的现象。
④皮肤过敏带的毛细血管出现循环障碍，如发生痉挛等，从而引起局部缺血。
5、神经节段性分布与穴位主治功能的关系
1）躯干部经穴主治功能与神经节段的关系
分析任脉、督脉、胃经、膀胱经、肾经和脾经位于颈部、上胸部、下胸部和腰骶部经穴的主治病症，可发现其有明显的神经节段性。从神经解剖学分析，人体躯干部穴区所属神经节段与其主治内脏所属神经节段具有相当的一致性
7、远距离取穴可以用“中枢汇聚理论”解释。
8、胃耳反射：传入神经—迷走神经；传出神经—交感神经节后纤维；中枢神经—下丘脑后外侧区
第二章针灸作用的基本特点与影响因素
1、针灸作用的基本特点：1整体性，2良性、双向性，3功能性、早期性
2、针灸作用的影响因素：1个体差异，2穴位功能特异性，3得气，4针法灸法的刺激参数，5时间因素
3、穴位功能特异性的表现（举例）：P76
5、艾灸的刺激参数及临床意义：P86①灸温：温度幅值、温度升降速度、温度作用面积②艾灸壮数、③每壮的持续时间和间隔时间、④灸量、⑤灸时、⑥灸质
第三章
1、疼痛特点：①痛觉不是一个独立的单一感觉。（而是和其他感觉糅合在一起组成一种复合感觉。）②痛觉伴有强烈的情绪色彩，构成相当复杂的心理活动。③疼痛还具有“经验”的属性。④能引起痛觉的刺激多为伤害性刺激。
疼痛分类：（根据疼痛的性质）：
①刺痛：又称快痛、第一痛。其特点是痛觉清晰、尖锐，定位明确，迅速发生又迅速消失，引起较弱的情绪变化，常伴有受刺激的肢体出现保护性反射。
②灼痛：又称慢痛、延缓痛、第二痛。其特点是痛觉缓慢形成，持续时间较长，定位较差，呈烧灼感，使人不易忍受，常伴有情绪反应、心血管和呼吸系统的变化。
③酸痛、胀痛、绞痛：其特点是痛觉难以描述，定位差，难以确定痛源部位。伴有内脏反应和躯体反应，以及较强的情绪反应。
2、常用体外致痛物质（七种）：K+、H+、组织胺、乙酰胆碱、5—HT、缓激肽、SP
3、闸门控制学说的中心思想（P111）：刺激皮肤发生的传入神经冲动进入脊髓后，被引进三个系统：闸门控制系统，中枢控制系统，作用系统。这三个系统协同作用才能产生痛感觉和痛反应。
4、针刺镇痛的一般规律:
⑴针刺镇痛作用的性质：具有以下特点:①针刺既能镇急性痛，又能镇慢性痛；②针刺既能抑制体表痛，又能减轻乃至消除深部痛和牵涉痛；③针刺既能抑制痛感觉，又能减低疼痛的情绪反应；④针刺既能减低痛觉分辨率，又能提高报痛标准。
⑵针刺镇痛作用的强度：在适宜的针刺刺激条件下，针刺可使正常人痛阈和耐痛阈提高，达到65%~180%。
⑶针刺镇痛的空间作用范围：针刺具有全身性的镇痛作用，但穴位与针刺镇痛部位之间有相对的特异性。
⑷针刺镇痛作用的时程:在人体从针刺开始至痛阈或耐痛阈升高至最大值一般需20~40min，继续运针或通电刺激可使镇痛作用持续保持在较高水平上，停针后其痛阈呈指数曲线形式回复，半衰期为16min左右。
⑸针刺镇痛作用的影响因素：针刺镇痛作用主要受到个体差异、时间因素、刺激参数等的影响。
5、针麻特点：①使用安全，适用范围广。②患者处于清醒状态，便于与医生配合。③生理干扰少，利于术后恢复。④简便、经济、便于推广。
作用：①辅助镇痛作用，②镇静作用，③抗内脏牵拉反应作用，④抗创伤性休克作用，⑤抗手术感染作用，⑥保护重要脏器功能的作用，⑦促进创伤修复的作用。
★缺陷/局限性（针麻“三关”）：镇痛不全、不能完全抑制内脏反应、肌肉松弛不够。
6、针刺镇痛的作用原理：一、针刺镇痛的外周机制：1、针感感受器的兴奋，2、针刺信号的外周传入纤维（针刺传入主要由躯体感觉神经中的Ⅱ类、Ⅲ类纤维传导。）3、同神经电针镇痛的外周机制。二、针刺镇痛的中枢机制：（论述题）
第四章针灸的免疫调节作用
1、举例针灸对免疫功能的调节作用（肿瘤免疫、白细胞、巨噬细胞免疫等）：
⑴针灸对白细胞的调节作用：针灸可以调节外周血白细胞的数量和吞噬功能。
①针灸对白细胞数量的调节：例如针灸正常人的足三里、合谷、内关，可使血中白细胞总数上升，并以中性粒细胞比例增加为主，而淋巴细胞比例下降。
②对白细胞吞噬功能的影响：针刺足三里或合谷穴，均能提高白细胞对金黄色葡萄球菌的吞噬能力。
⑵针灸可以增加巨噬细胞的吞噬功能：例如针刺老年大鼠双侧足三里和关元穴，能使老年大鼠肝内巨噬细胞在数量上增多，体积上增大，吞噬功能增强。
⑶针灸对肿瘤细胞免疫的调节作用：例如电针荷瘤大鼠足三里、合谷和三阴交，可以提高CD4+细胞数量和CD4+/CD8+比值下降
3、针灸的抗炎作用（三个方面）（论述题）：（1）对渗出的影响：针灸可抑制炎症过程中血管通透性的增高，减少炎症渗出物；减轻炎症灶白细胞浸润；改善炎症局部微循环和淋巴循环，促进炎性渗出物的吸收，减轻炎性水肿。（2）对变性的影响：针灸可控制和缩水炎症灶坏死面积，延缓和防止坏死的发生，从而减轻炎症的变性病变。（3）对增生的影响：针灸可促进细胞的修复再生和瘢痕化进程；在促进肉芽组织形成的同时抑制其过度增生。
第五章针灸对各器官系统功能的调节（论述题）
1、针灸治疗脑血管病的作用机制：①改善脑微循环，增加脑血流量，②改善血液流变学异常，③改善脑电活动，④抑制免疫炎性反应，促进内皮细胞的修复，⑤保护受损神经元（a、降低自由基水平，b、拮抗兴奋性氨基酸神经毒作用，c、抑制神经细胞的凋亡，d、抑制钙超载）
2、针灸治疗糖尿病的作用机制：①影响血糖水平（双向调节）、②影响血脂水平（降低）、③改善胰岛素抵抗、④调节神经-内分泌-免疫系统功能、⑤对糖尿病周围神经病变的影响：（a、改善微循环及血液流变学异常，b、改善神经病变）
3、针灸治疗冠心病的作用机制：针刺内关穴可以改善急性心肌缺血①增加冠状动脉血流量，改善心脏泵血功能，②改善血液流变学及微循环状态，③调节心电活动，改善心电图指标，④对单胺类神经递质的影响，⑤调节血管活性物质。
4、针灸治疗支气管哮喘的作用机制：①改善肺功能，②对多种炎症免疫细胞及细胞因子的影响，③调节下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺皮质轴，④调整免疫功能
第六章科研方法
1、医学研究的分类：基础研究、应用研究、开发研究
2、医学研究的基本程序：①提出问题，确定选题，建立假说；②查阅文献资料，撰写文献综述；③科研设计；④观察实验与验证；⑤整理资料，实验结果的分析；⑥撰写论文与发表。
3、选题的原则：科学性、先进性、创新性、适用性、可行性、效能性。
基本程序（了解）：1提出问题、2查阅文献、3建立假说、4确立选题、5选题的说明
5、实验设计的三要素：研究对象、处理因素、实验效应
四原则：对照原则、随机原则、重复原则、盲法原则
第三篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
名词解释
1、肾门：肾脏内侧缘中部呈四边形的凹陷。
2、肾蒂：出入肾门的血管、神经、淋巴管及肾盂被结缔组织所包裹，称为~。
3、肾窦：由肾门伸入肾实质的凹陷称为~，为肾血管、肾小盏、肾大盏、肾盂和脂肪所占据。
肾盂：由2-3个肾大盏集合而成，呈前后略扁的漏斗形，肾盂出肾门后逐渐变细，移行为输尿管。
4、肾区：腰背部竖脊肌外侧缘与第12肋的夹角处为肾门的体表投影点，称为~。
肾柱：伸入肾锥体之间的肾皮质。
肾乳头：肾锥体的尖端钝圆、伸向肾窦称为~。
5、膀胱三角：在膀胱底内面，两侧输尿管口和尿道内口之间的三角形区域称为~。此处缺少粘膜下组织，粘膜紧贴肌层，故膀胱膨胀或空虚时均保持平滑状态。是肿瘤、结核和炎症的好发区。
6、输尿管间襞：两个输尿管口之间的皱襞称为~，膀胱镜下所见是一苍白带，是临床上寻找输尿管输尿管口的标志。
7、精索：位于睾丸上端和腹股沟管腹环间的一对柔软的圆索状结构。
8、包皮系带：包皮与阴茎头腹侧中线处连有一皮肤皱襞，称为~。
9、鞘膜腔：睾丸鞘膜脏壁两层在睾丸后缘处返折移行，两者之间的腔隙称为~，内有少量浆液。
10、子宫峡：子宫颈阴道上部的上端子宫体相接较狭细的部分称为~。未孕时1cm，妊娠末期可达7-11cm。产科常在此处行剖宫产术。
11、子宫阔韧带：子宫前后面的腹膜自子宫侧缘向两侧延伸至盆侧壁和盆底形成的双侧腹膜皱襞称为~。
12、阴道穹：阴道的上端宽阔，包绕子宫颈阴道部，二者之间形成的一个环形凹陷称为~。
13、乳房悬韧带（Cooper韧带）：胸壁浅筋膜发出许多小的纤维束，连于胸筋膜和皮肤，称为~，对乳房起支持和固定作用。
14、会阴（狭义）：肛门和外生殖器之间的软组织。
会阴（广义）：封闭小骨盆下口的所有软组织。
15、盆膈：盆膈上筋膜、盆膈下筋膜及其之间的肛提肌、尾骨肌共同组成的结构称为~。作为盆腔底封闭骨盆出口，在中线上有直肠、尿道、阴道等通过。
尿生殖膈：在尿生殖区，由盆膈上筋膜、尿生殖膈下筋膜及其间的会阴深横肌、尿道括约肌等组成的结构称为~。
16、膀胱括约肌：在尿道内口的周围环形平滑肌增厚，形成膀胱括约肌。
17、射精管：由输精管末端与精囊腺排泄管汇合而成的管道称为~。其从前列腺底部穿前列腺实质，开口于尿道的前列腺部。
18、尿道球：尿道海绵体的后端膨大称为~。
输卵管伞：在输卵管漏斗的周缘，由粘膜形成的许多指状突起。
阴道前庭：两侧小阴唇之间的裂隙。前部有尿道外口，后部有阴道口。
第四篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
1.Amerigo Vespucci---Amerigo Vespucci, a navigator, proved that the land was not India,but a new continent. Therefore, the land was named America after.
2.the Mississippi River--the mississippi River has been called "father of waters" or "old man river",the mississippi and its tributaries drain one of the richest farm areas in the world.it is the most important river in the world.
3.WASPS---WASPS are the mainstream Americans, refering to the white Anglo-saxon protestants. 新教徒的盎格鲁撒克逊裔美国人
4.the Great Lakes---the great lakes are the most important lakes in the united states.they are Lake Superior,lake Michigan,Lake Huron,Lake Eire and Lake Ontario.
5. New England---New England refers to the northeastern six states of the US. They are Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. New England is sometimes called the birthplace of America.
6.The Puritans----The Puritans were wealthy, well-educated gentlemen. They wanted to purify the Church of England and threatened with religious persecution, the Puritans leaders saw the New world as the a refuge provided by God for those He meant to save.清教徒
7.Indentured servants---indenture servants refer to some immigrants who has to work for a fixed term for their masters to repay the cross-atlantic fare and debts.契约佣工
8.Crown colonies---Crown colonies were under the control of the English Monarch who appointed governors to rule them.英直辖殖民地
9.Proprietary colonies--- Proprietary colonies were founded on lands granted by the king to individuals who were the real owners of these colonies.独立前英王特许领主独占的殖民地
10.Charter colonies--- Charter colonies were established on the charter, or permit, given by the monarch to a group of merchants. The charter stipulated the rights and obligations of the colonies as well as the principles they had to obey.特许殖民地
11.The First Continental Congress---In 1774, the First Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia, which encouraged Americans to refuse to buy British goods, and organized colonial militia units.第一届大陆会议
12.no taxtation without representation---that is ,without their representatives taking part in decision-making,they had no obligation to pay taxes.
13.Boston Tea Party---in 1773,when ships of tea reached boston and the governor was determind to see that tea was legally protected in its distribution,several dozen boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships at night and threw $75,000 worth of tea into the harbor.this came to be known as the "Boston Tea Party".波士顿倾茶事件
14.federalists---they were those who demanded a strong national system and who later struggle hard for the ratification of the Constitution.联邦制拥护者
15."the Great Compromise"---"the Great Compromise" of july 16,giving each state an equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state"s population."大妥协"
16. The Bill of Rights----In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were drafted into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.
17.the Emancipation Proclamation---during the civil war, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to get more support for the union at home and abroad.It granted freedom to all slaves.解放宣言
18.the Gettysburg Address---it refers to the short speech president Lincoln made when he dedicated the national cemetery at Gettysburg. He ended the speech with “the government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish死亡 from the earth”.葛底斯堡演说
19.the ku klux klan---the kkk was the first organized in 1866 and then reformed in 1867.the kkk terrorized and attacked not only blacks,but also progressives,labor union organizers communist or socialist party members.三K党，最早成立在1866年，后在1867年重组，他们进行恐怖活动，不仅攻击黑人、而且还迫害进步人士、工会组织者、社会主义和共产主义党派成员。
20. Fourteen Points---it was proposed by President Wilson in January, 1918. In his Fourteen Points, he defined a new world order of justice, peace and property, promoting freedom of seas, removal of trade barriers, among others. However, almost all the points Wilson had proposed were rejected in the Versailles Treaty.十四点原则
21.the Red Scare--the Red Scare, on November 7, 1919 and January 2, 1920,the justice department launched two waves of arrests, over 4,000 suspected radicals and communists were arrested. 红色恐惧（恐慌）,在1919年12月7日和1920年1月2日，司法部发动了两次抓捕活动，大约4000名被怀疑是激进分子和共产党的人被逮捕。
22.The Black Thursday---The Black Thursday refers to Oct 24 1929 when the stock market crash happened. Ten of millions of shares were dumped and billions of dollars of paper profits were wiped out within a few hours. It signaled the beginning of the Great Depression.
23.The New Deal----In order to deal with the Depression, President Franklin Roosevelt put forward the New Deal program. It passed a lot of New Deal laws and set up many efficient social security systems. The New Deal helped to save American democracy and the development of American economy.新政
24.the Truman doctrine---that is,the united states would support any country which said it was fighting with communism.杜鲁门主义，是说美国将支持任何与共产主义做斗争的国家。
25. checks and balances---this is a major principle of the American governmental system by which each branch of the government exercises a check on the actions of the others.制衡制度,是美国政府的一个主要措施,政府的各部门都可以制止和检查其他各部门的行为.
26.winner-takes-all---this is to say,the candidate who receives the most votes wins everything.胜者得全票选举人制度,是说获得最多选票的候选人赢得全部.
27. the federal system---it is a system of government in which power is divided by a written constitution between a central government and regional, or sub-divisional governments.联邦制
28.separation of powers---it refers to the principle that the national goverment is split into three branches:legislative,executive and judicial.分权制
29.transcendentalism---it was a movement that emerged in the 1830s and 1840s among american yough intellectuals which emphasized man"s potentiality for goodness creativity,and self-development.超验主义
30. Jazz---jazz is a blend of African musical tradition carried over by black slaves and European classics.爵士音乐
31.Halloween---In the US, Halloween falls on Oct 31. It’s a nighttime children’s day and a time for frightening costumes, masks, parties, games and tricks--- all for fun.万圣节
32. independence Day---Independence Day (July 4) is American’s most important patriotic holiday and the birthday of the nation.美国独立日
33.Thanksgiving---Thanksgiving is celebrated in the US on the fourth Thursday in November. For many Americans it is the most important holiday apart from Christmas.感恩节
第五篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
Unrepresentative samples
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. One such flaw occurs when an argument draws a conclusion about a group from evidence that deals with a subgroup that is not representative of the entire group.
Unrepresentative evidence is either too limited to represent the group in the conclusion adequately, or it addresses a sample group whose makeup differs in some significant way from the makeup of the group in the conclusion.
It has long been asserted that snowboarding is a significantly more dangerous activity than skiing, but a study of Olympic skiiers and snowboarders suggests that there is no such disparity in risk. Over the last two decades, Olympic snowboarders and Olympic skiers have experienced equal injury rates.
This argument cites an unrepresentative sample as evidence. Olympic skiers and snowboarders differ significantly from skiers and snowboarders in general. Since the argument draws a conclusion about skiers and snowboarders in general from the evidence of Olympic athletes, it suffers from a logical flaw.
It has long been asserted that snowboarding is a significantly more dangerous Olympic sport than skiing, but a 2006 study performed at the Winter Olympics in Torino demonstrates that there is no such disparity in risk. Of the very few injuries recorded at these Olympics, there were an equal number to snowboarders and skiers.
This argument also cites an unrepresentative sample as evidence. The very few injuries experienced by Olympic skiers and snowboarders at Torino in 2006 are too limited to represent the injuries experienced by Olympic skiers and snowboarders in general. Since the argument draws a conclusion about Olympic skiiers and snowboarders in general from the evidence of such a small group, it suffers from a logical flaw.
A formal logical statement is one that establishes a necessary connection between facts. A standard way to express such a statement is “if P then Q.” In this statement, P represents a fact that is sufficient to establish that Q must be true, and Q represents a fact that must necessarily be true if P is true.
Certain other relationships between P and Q may be validly inferred from this statement, while other potential relationships are invalid inferences.
Formal logical statement:
If P, then Q.
If I am a novelist, then I am a writer.
The fact that I am a novelist is sufficient to establish that I must be a writer. Furthermore, it"s necessarily true that I"m a writer given that I am a novelist.
Possible formal logical inferences:
If not Q, then not P.
If I am not a writer, then I am not a novelist.
This inference, called the contrapositive, reverses the order P and Q and negates both. It is valid. It"s necessarily true that I"m a writer given that I am a novelist. Therefore, the fact that I am not a writer is sufficient to establish that I"m not a novelist.
If not P, then not Q.
If I am not a novelist, then I am not a writer.
This inference negates both P and Q without reversing their order. It is invalid. I can be a non-novelist but still a writer. For example, I could be a journalist or playwright who does not write novels.
If Q, then P.
If I am a writer, then I am a novelist.
This inference reverses the order of P and Q without negating them. It is invalid. The fact that I am a writer is not sufficient to establish that I am a novelist. I could be a journalist or a playwright who does not write novels.
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. One such flaw occurs when an argument concludes that one event caused another based only on the evidence that the two events occurred at the same time or one after the other.
Such arguments rely on an unwarranted assumption that two events that occur together must have a certain cause-and-effect relationship.
It is common for recent airplane passengers to report feeling jet lagged up to several days after a transatlantic flight. These jet lag sufferers are also likelier than average to be diagnosed with influenza. Therefore, jet lag causes an increased susceptibility to influenza.
This argument assumes a cause-and-effect relationship based on a correlation. The conclusion that jet lag causes the flu suffers from a logical flaw; the evidence only establishes that jet lag and the flu occur together. In fact, these two conditions have separate causes: traveling across time zones causes jet lag, and sitting very close to many people causes the flu.
Sometimes an argument concludes that one event causes another when both events are caused by a third unnamed factor.
Advertisement for Hatton Frozen Novelty, Co.: Not only is ice cream delicious, but it’s also good for your mental health. Studies show that the more money people spend on ice cream, the happier people tend to feel. So, if you want to be considerate to both your taste buds and your mind, buy Hatton ice cream.
This argument assumes a cause-and-effect relationship between two events with a third cause. The conclusion that buying Hatton ice cream will make people happier suffers from a logical flaw; the evidence only establishes that increased happiness and increased ice cream spending occur together. It is more likely that a third factor, such as summer weather, is responsible for both the increase in ice cream sales and the increase in reported happiness.
Inferring the reasoning behind statements
Readers are often expected to make inferences, conclusions not explicitly stated in a passage but strongly supported by the text. Detail-based inferences are conclusions drawn from an single detail in context.
Often, readers are asked to infer the reasoning behind statements; in other words, readers must articulate why an author chose to include a specific detail. Such inferences require an understanding of the author"s purpose and the structure of the author"s argument.
Consider this passage by Paul Lacroix:
The falcon was held in the highest esteem, a distinctive mark which was inseparable from the person of gentle birth, who frequently even went to war with the falcon on his wrist. The falcon to a certain degree even partook of his owner"s nobility; he was, moreover, considered a noble bird by the laws of falconry, as were all birds of prey which could be trained for purposes of sport. All other birds, without distinction, were declared ignoble, and no exception was made to this rule by the naturalists of the Middle Ages, not even in favour of the magnificent eagle or the fearsome vulture.
The reader might be asked to determine the primary reason why the author mentions the magnificent eagle or the fearsome vulture.
Possible inferences:
Valid
They are mentioned in order to emphasize the high esteem in which falcons were held.
Since the main idea of the passage is the status of the falcon, it seems likely that other birds are discussed in order to make a point about falcons. The eagle and vulture are described in impressive terms (magnificent and fearsome). They are nevertheless declared ignoble because they are not falcons. The author thus reinforces the main idea that the falcon was held in special esteem.
Invalid
They are mentioned in order to undermine the idea that falcons partook of their owners" nobility
The discussion of the eagle and the vulture comes within the context of the nobility of other birds, not within the part of the passage discussing falcons" share in their owners" nobility. Furthermore, this inference both does not fit the main idea of the passage–the noble status of falcons.
Inferring new details consistent with a passage
An inference is a statement that is not explicitly stated, but can be logically Identifying conclusion:concluded from what is stated. It is important to distinguish between an inference and an Assumption questions:assumption. An assumption is an unstated premise that must be true in order for the argument to be valid, while an inference is an unstated fact that must be true if the argument is valid.
While in common speech we often use the word inference to refer to something that is only probably true, for our purposes an inference refers to something that must be true based on the evidence provided.
On the GMAT:
Test-takers are often asked to infer new details consistent with principles outlined in a passage. This may refer to an idea with which the author of the passage would agree, or a new situation or strategy that illustrates certain general principles in the passage.
To answer these questions correctly, test-takers must identify the general principle outlined in the passage as clearly and specifically as possible. Only then, with this principle in hand, should he or she examine the answer choices, eliminating those that do not correspond to the principle in order to isolate the one that does.
Example:
Homeless shelters that provide only a place to sleep and a warm meal are useful in the short term, but ultimately ineffective in reducing homelessness. Only programs that directly addresses the root cause of homelessness, unemployment, by providing the homeless with the skills and support they need to find gainful employment, will result in any longstanding reduction of the homeless population.
Which of the following programs to reduce homelessness would the author be most likely to support?
In the above example, the general principle is relatively straightforward: The correct answer will be the only one that provides the homeless with the skills and support... to find employment. No other choice, no matter how logical, rational, or intuitive, will be considered correct.
Some more abstract principles are more difficult to locate in a passage:
Companies that invest heavily in expanding their infrastructure within a limited geographical area sometimes face an unexpected dilemma; multiple arms of the same business reach into the same customer base, saturating a market. The company"s new divisions both cost more and compete with one another, which raises overhead without increasing revenues.
Which of the following situations best exemplifies the "dilemma" discussed in the passage?
In this example, the principle is far more specific; the right answer will reflect a company which has expanded and which has divisions that compete with each other, costing more and not making more. Not all of these features need be addressed in the answer choice, but several must be, and any answer choices with features that specifically contradict these, such as one involving a company that expands, competes with itself, but does increase revenues, can be eliminated.
Analogous situations
Some Reading Comprehension questions ask test-takers to identify a situation which closely mirrors a situation described in a passage—sometimes referred to by the test as an analogous situation. Note that "analogous" does not mean "identical"; in fact, the new situation will often be similar to the passage in only one or two aspects.
Correctly identifying which answer choice presents the analogous situation requires paying very close attention to the structure of the argument the author presents.
In particular, general features of the argument like changes, conflicts, and causes will be mirrored in the new analogous situation. More specifically, there is often one key element of an author"s argument thatmust be represented in the correct answer choice.
Examples:
Passage Situation: Although Brinkers Corporation would have been expected to dominate its competitors in the commercial real-estate market due to its larger market share and higher level of name recognition, these features in fact had the opposite effect. In accordance with Keane"s theory of rotating markets, clients assumed that they already understood how Brinkers operated, but were open to the claims made by competitors who had not yet been so defined.
Structural Elements: A large, successful entity is too well "understood," so smaller competitors can make their own reputations and surpass it.
Key Aspect: One"s reputation, even if positive, can work against one.
Analogous Situation: A job candidate with strong recommendations and many years of experience in a certain field is passed over in favor of a candidate who promises to adapt with the company.
Passage Situation: Ectothermic animals, those that cannot control their body temperatures except through external means, often have developed behavioral adaptations that seem counterintuitive. The Peninsular Rock Agama, an Indian lizard, must sit completely exposed on heated rocks for extended periods each morning to reverse the cooling experienced the previous night, flattening its body to the rock when predatory birds fly overhead.
Structural Elements: An animal must endanger itself to maintain its body temperature environmentally, because it cannot do so internally.
Key Aspect: A reliance on the outside environment is necessary, but dangerous.
Analogous Situation: A shopkeeper must publicly post his store"s prices in order to draw customers, although this enables larger stores to easily undercut those prices.
The point of view of a statement is the source to whom the statement is attributed. Often, a passage contains both statements that are presented from the author"s point of view (i.e. statements addressed directly from the author to the reader) and statements that the author attributes to another person or group. Recognizing changes in point of view is critical to understanding a passage.
The ability of the FDA to adequately monitor the information drug companies transmit to consumers through advertisements is, at best, questionable. According to a 2006 report by the United States Government Accountability Office, the FDA reviewed only a small portion of the advertising materials it received, and the agency could not ensure that it was identifying for review the materials it considered to be highest in priority. Though the study"s specific claims might be disputed, the broader implications of such a finding should be as clear to everyone as they are to me: advertising materials from drug companies cannot be trusted.
In this passage, the author starts by asserting her own opinion ("the FDA has only a questionable ability to monitor ads").
The second sentence begins with according to..., which indicates that the statement to follow is presented from another party"s point of view. In this case, the other party is the United States Government Accountability Office.
The final sentence returns to the author"s point of view. The use of the first-person pronoun meindicates that this statement should be attributed to the author.
Certain inferences might be valid from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office, but not necessarily from the author"s point of view.
The FDA may not adequately review all of the advertising materials that it considers highest in priority.
This inference may be drawn correctly from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office. It can be concluded from the evidence outlined in the second sentence. However, from the point of view of the author, this inference is drawn incorrectly. The beginning of the final sentence does not support this inference.
Many advertisements created by drug companies contain misleading information.
It is incorrect to draw this inference from the point of view of the United States Government Accountability Office. This group does not offer evidence that many advertisements will contain misleading information. However, from the point of view of the author, this inference is drawncorrectly. If the author"s statements are accepted as true, this inference follows.
Recognizing logical keywords
Authors frequently make use of certain words to indicate to the reader the direction their argument is taking. Such words may be called logical keywords, indicators, or direction words.
Many logical keywords fall into two groups: Keywords that indicate continuity or support and keywords that indicate contrast. Usually, these words serve to introduce specific arguments or examples that the author wishes to discuss. Paying attention to logical keywords makes it easier to understand an author"s argument more quickly.
Keywords that indicate continuity or support signal that the statements that follow them agree with the preceding text.
The king does not believe in the right to a fair trial; indeed, he summarily condemns peasants accused of sedition without even giving them a day in court.
The word indeed signals that the king"s behavior – he summarily condemns peasants – is an examplesupporting the point that he does not believe in the right to a fair trial.)
Keywords that indicate contrast signal that statements that follow them opposes what has been argued previously.
The king does not believe in the right to a fair trial; nevertheless, he has allowed some property owners to plead cases before the royal court.
The word nevertheless signals that the king"s behavior contrasts with what we"d expect given that hedoes not believe in the right to a fair trial.
Other common keywords and keyword pairs can indicate relationships of cause and effect, addemphasis, or signal a conclusion.
Common continuity keywords
Furthermore
In addition
Also
Moreover
And
For example
Next
Similarly
For instance
Plus
Besides
Indeed
Common contrast keywords
But
However
In contrast
On the other hand
Despite
Nevertheless
On the contrary
Conversely
Common cause and effect keywords
If...then...
because
as a result
Common emphasis keywords
the fact of the matter
possibly
no doubt
Common conclusion keywords
therefore
thus
no doubt
A conclusion is the final judgment to which the reasoning of an argument leads. It is the main idea that the argument is trying to establish as true.
The conclusion of an argument is usually supported by both stated evidence and unstated assumptions.
There were muddy footprints near the door to the bedroom where the theft occurred, and the armoire next to the missing jewelry box was spattered with water. Since it had started raining outside only two hours before, Sherlock Holmes concluded that the crime had been committed very recently.
What is the main point of Holmes" argument?
Holmes concluded that the crime had been committed very recently.
As in this example, arguments are usually written so that the conclusion comes at the end.
My parents always call me at times when I can"t talk, so I should try to call them instead.
Poor weather always eventually gives way to fair weather; therefore, tomorrow"s weather will most likely be pleasant.
However, arguments can also be written such that the conclusion appears elsewhere.
Canada is a wonderful place to visit, because it has some of the most striking fall foliage in North America.
The evidence of Canada"s striking fall foliage supports the conclusion that Canada is a great place to visit.
Greg sleeps soundly when he goes to the gym, so going to the gym must be good for his health, especially given that he sometimes suffers from insomnia.
The evidence that Greg sleeps well after going to the gym and that he sometimes experiences insomnia supports the conclusion that going to the gym is good for Greg.
Words and word groups like therefore, in conclusion, so, and thus often introduce conclusions.
I think, therefore I am.
I am is the conclusion supported by the evidence I think.
The light is red, so you should stop.
You should stop is the conclusion supported by the evidence the light is red.
Evidence is a fact or facts that are explicitly stated in support of an argument. Sometimes referred to as a premise or premises, evidence provides the basis for the reasoning that an argument uses to reach its conclusion.
A statement that, like evidence, supports an argument but that, unlike evidence, is left unstated or implied is known as an assumption. Most often, the reasoning that an argument uses to reach its conclusion relies upon both evidence and an assumption or assumptions.
Unless otherwise stated, evidence is irrefutable: its truth is certain within the confines of the argument.
There were muddy footprints near the door to the bedroom where the theft occurred, and the armoire next to the missing jewelry box was spattered with water. Since it had started raining outside only two hours before, Sherlock Holmes concluded that the crime had been committed very recently.
What facts are explicitly stated to support Holmes" argument? Evidence provided in this passage includes:
There were muddy footprints near the door.
The armoire was spattered with water.
It had started raining only two hours before.
The truth of these statements is certain, and they provide the basis for the argument"s reasoning.
Certain keywords and phrases can signal that a statement should be considered evidence. Examples of these include the fact that, because, and in general, among others.
The fact that the sun has risen in the East up until now suggests that it will rise in the East again tomorrow.
The phrase the fact that indicates that what follows it—the sun has risen in the East—is employed as evidence in this sentence.
Because George Harrison was the least well-known member of the Beatles, he must be shy.
The word because indicates that what follows it—George Harrison was the least well-known member of the Beatles— is employed as evidence in this sentence.
In general, physicians are required to go through more formal education than are nurses, so physicians must be more effective health care providers.
The phrase in general indicates that what follows it—physicians are required to go through more formal education than are nurses—is employed as evidence in this sentence.
In well-organized passages, each sentence contributes a distinct part of the overall argument. Thus, readers are sometimes asked to identify the logical role of a statement—the function of that sentence within a paragraph or within the passage as a whole.
Identifying the logical role of a statement requires paying careful attention to the general argument of the identifying purpose:entire passage, the particular argument of the defining the logical role of a paragraph:paragraph, and the meaning of the statement.
On The GMAT:
A reader may be asked to describe the logical role of a statement in either determining logical role of statement in general terms:general or determining logical role of statement in specific terms:specific terms. A general description of a statement uses abstract terms (deny a claim, introduce supporting evidence), while a specific description will use the ideas from the passage (deny Marshall"s claim that..., introduce evidence to support the biographical model of...).
Common Roles of Statements:
Some particular roles of statements appear frequently on the GMAT. However, there are a large number of possible roles for any given statement; this list should only be used as a starting point.
∙Statements may present the passage author"s particular viewpoint about an idea in the passage.
∙Statements may present the viewpoint of a source named in the passage--usually that of a historian, theorist, or businessperson.
∙Statements often provide evidence to support claims, models, theories or ideas from the passage.
∙Statements may point out a specific example of an general idea or theory in action.
∙Conversely, statements may point out a general principle that can be drawn from a specific example or examples presented in the passage.
∙Statements often point out flaws or counterexamples that may cast doubt on claims made earlier in the passage.
∙Statements sometimes point out exceptions to a model or theory with which the author otherwise supports.
Example:
While perhaps not the most eminent of the early 20th century labor movement leaders, William Dudley “Big Bill” Haywood had an imposing physical presence that, coupled with his bombastic personality and radical social beliefs, has ensured his place in U.S. labor history. Adding to his popular mythos is the fact that many aspects, both physical and mental, of his persona remain uncertain to this day. Various sources describe him as being anywhere from six to seven feet tall and weighing anywhere from 225 to 300 pounds. He was always photographed in profile to hide his missing right eye, an injury stemming from an accident whittling a slingshot when he was nine years old.
In the argument above, the statement in boldface plays which of the following roles?
Stated generally, the logical role of the highlighted statement is to provide evidence for a position. The position in question is that many aspects of Haywood"s persona remain uncertain, which has contributed to his role in history, a position stated in the preceding sentence.
Stated specifically, the logical role of the highlighted statement is to provide evidence supporting the claim that the proportions of Haywood"s physical form were unknown.
Related Video on Logical roles of statements
Role of StatementOn some relatively rare occasions, test-takers will encounter a GMAT critical reasoning question in an unusual format. It will provide a full argument , with evidence, a conclusion and an assumption; the argument often goes out of its way to rebut another argument. Then it will ask test-takers to identify the "roles" of two statements in the argument, which will be highlighted in a boldfaced font.
What makes this question type difficult is that it brings to the surface the underlying structure and terminology of arguments as used by the GMAT. In other words, the answer choices will refer to explicit logical and rhetorical terms such as:
∙argument
∙claim
∙position
∙opinion
∙viewpoint or perspective
∙assumption
∙evidence
∙conclusion
∙rebuttal
∙judgment
∙proposal
∙agree or disagree
∙strengthen (or bolster, support, or "provide evidence for")
∙weaken (or undermine, detract, or "provide evidence against")
Understanding what these terms mean, and more notably, what they mean specifically to the authors of the GMAT, is essential on this question type, and useful for many others as well. Knewton covers these terms in more detail in the "Reading and Reasoning" supplemental video lesson.
Unraveling Role of Statement Questions
Test-takers" main task on role of statement questions is to determine the specific role of each sentence in the argument.
Putting the argument into one"s own words, sentence by sentence, can help with this task. It can also be helpful to remember that in any one argument, there are usually two distinct viewpoints described: one that represents "common wisdom" or a certain proposition presented by some source, and another (that of the argument"s author) that either agrees or disagrees with this proposition, and provides extra evidence to support its position.
These arguments can take more complex formats because test-takers are not being asked to strengthen or weaken them. Understanding the argument fully is the whole challenge of the question; therefore, the GMAT test-makers purposefully make these arguments convoluted and relatively difficult to understand.
Example:
Entrepreneur: In the last two years, there has been a sharp rise in the number of competitors vying to be the most successful cellular phone service provider. Some attribute this rise to the fact that broadcast frequencies, which were once limited to a small number of satellite and tower-owning conglomerates, can now be accessed through small wireless routers. Actually, the fact that two years ago, an anti-trust law was passed prohibiting companies that manufacture cellular telephone handsets from also being cellular phone service providers is far more important in instigating the rise in the number of competing providers, and the rise is likely to continue unabated.
The boldfaced statements play which of the following roles in the above argument?
Notice that the boldfaced statements tend to be "facts," which can either be evidence, conclusions, or facts that relate to evidence or conclusions. Therefore, it is always wise to first identify the conclusion(s) and supporting evidence in the argument outright.
Conclusion of "some": The rise in cell phone service providers is due to changes broadcast frequency access.
Evidence to support this conclusion: Access was once limited, and now (presumably) is not.
Conclusion of Entrepreneur: The rise in cell phone service providers is actually due to a certain anti-trust law.
Evidence to support this conclusion: This anti-trust law prohibited certain companies from being providers.
The first boldfaced statement supports the evidence used by "some," and the second is evidence used by the entrepreneur, who has a different, and opposing, point of view. The correct answer would reflect this structure, using the rhetorical vocabulary in the list above.
Agreement of compound subjects connected by "and"
A subject that contains two or more nouns connected by a conjunction is called a compound subject. When the parts of a compound subject are connected by the conjunction and or the correlative conjunction both...and..., the subject nearly always functions as plural. Therefore, it agrees with a plural verb.
Jack and Jill climb together.
The compound subject Jack and Jill agrees with the plural verb climb.
Incorrect
Your health and your well-being is in the doctor"s hands.
The compound subject your health and yourwell-being agrees with a plural verb, not the singular verb is.
Correct
Your health and your well-being are in the doctor"s hands.
The plural verb are agrees with the compound subject your health and your well-being.
When a compound subject is treated as a single unit or when the nouns in a compound subject refer to the same person or thing, treat the subject as singular.
Strawberries and cream were last-minute additions to the menu.
Strawberries and cream were added separately to the menu; therefore, this subject is plural. It agrees with the plural verb were.
Strawberries and cream was a last-minute addition to the menu.
Strawberries and cream was added to the menu as a unit; therefore, this subject is singular. It agrees with the singular verb was.
Sue"s friend and advisor was surprised by her decision.
The singular verb was implies that each noun in the compound subject friend and advisor refers to the same person.
When a compound subject is preceded by each or every, treat it as singular.
Each tree, shrub, and vine needs to be sprayed.
Every car, truck, and van is required to pass inspection.
When a compound subject is followed by each, treat it as plural.
Jack and Jill each have different climbing styles.
Collective nouns and generic nouns as subjects
Collective nouns name a class or a group. Jury, committee, audience, troop, couple, bunch, set, andcouple are examples of collective nouns. A generic noun represents a typical member of a group (or any member of a group).
It can be challenging to determine correct pronoun-antecedent agreement and subject-verb agreement in sentences with collective nouns or generic nouns. These nouns appear grammatically singular but are used to refer to multiple items or individuals.
Ordinarily the group named by a collective noun functions as a unit, so the collective noun is singular.
The committee grants its permission for the artist to place her sculpture in the park.
The committee as a whole, not each committee member on his or her own, allows the artist to install her sculpture. Therefore, committee is a singular noun; the verb grants and the pronoun its are correspondingly singular.
If the members of the group function as individuals, the collective noun should be treated as plural.
The committee put their signatures on the document.
A group as a whole cannot sign a document; the committee members much each sign the document. Therefore, committee is a plural noun; the verb put and pronoun their are correspondingly plural.
A generic noun may seem to have a plural meaning since it can refer to any member of a group. However, generic nouns are grammatically singular.
Incorrect
The black bear are remarkably strong climbers.
Correct
The black bear is a remarkably strong climber.
Black bear is a singular generic noun referring to the any individual member of this species.
Incorrect
Every medical student must study diligently ifthey are to succeed.
Correct
Every medical student must study diligently ifhe or she is to succeed.
Medical student is a singular generic noun referring to any individual member of this group.
Prepositions and prepositional phrases
A preposition is a word that describes a relationship. Usually, this relationship is related to position ortime.
Prepositions include words like in, through, under, to (describing a relationship of position), before,after, until (describing a relationship of time), by, and of (describing other relationships).
Usually, a preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun that provides a reference point for the relationship that the preposition expresses. This noun or pronoun is called the object of the preposition. Together, a preposition and its object make up a prepositional phrase.
His cousins were under the porch.
Under the porch is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition under and the object the porch.
I put on my trench coat before the storm.
Before the storm is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition before and the object the storm.
The novel was written by Rudyard Kipling.
By Rudyard Kipling is a prepositional phrase made up of the preposition by and the object Rudyard Kipling.
Prepositional phrases function as modifiers (that is, as adjectives or adverbs). A prepositional phrase modifying a noun or pronoun nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Variety is the spice of life.
The prepositional phrase of life modifies the noun spice.
The display in the store contained many Halloween decorations.
The prepositional phrase in the store modifies the noun display.
A prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb may appear in different locations within a sentence.
Do not judge a book by its cover.
By its cover is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb judge.
After midnight, she fell asleep.
After midnight is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb fell.
Occasionally, prepositions can appear without an object. These prepositions always function as adverbs.
The manager is going out, but the salespeople are coming in.
The prepositions out and in act as adverbs modifying the verb phrases is going and are coming, respectively.
The investment bank might go under.
(Under is a preposition modifying the verb go.)
Common Prepositions
aboard
about
above
across
after
against
along
amid
among
around
at
aside
athwart
atop
barring
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
but
by
despite
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
minus
near
next
of
off
on
onto
opposite
out
outside
over
pace
past
per
plus
round
save
since
than
through
throughout
times
to
toward
towards
under
underneath
unlike
until
up
upon
versus
via
with
within
without
worth
An appositive is a modifier that renames a noun or pronoun. An appositive differs from an adjective in that an appositive is itself a noun (or a set of nouns and modifiers). In their role as modifiers of nouns, however, there is little practical difference between appositives and adjectives.
Politicians, acrobats at heart, can both sit on a fence and keep their ears to the ground.
The appositive acrobats at heart modifies the meaning of politicians by providing another name for this group of people.
Our manager Bob cut costs by twenty percent.
The appositive Bob modifies the meaning of the noun manager by providing another name for this person.
An appositive may be restrictive, that is, essential to the meaning of the noun that it renames. In this case, the appositive should not be set off between commas.
The forensic scientist Joe Henson gave a long-winded lecture.
The appositive Joe Henson is not set off by commas, so it functions as a restrictive appositive. This grammatical form indicates that it"s critical to the meaning of the sentence that Joe Henson, in particular, gave the lecture.
An appositive may be nonrestrictive, that is, not essential to the meaning of the noun that it renames. In this case, the appositive should be set off between commas.
A medical administrator, Herman Jones, gave a long-winded lecture.
The appositive Herman Jones is set off by commas, so it functions as a nonrestrictive appositive. This grammatical form indicates that it"s not critical to the meaning of the sentence that Herman Jones, in particular, gave the lecture.
Adjective clausesAn adjective clause (also known as a relative clause) is a group of words that contains both a subject and a main verb and that functions as a single grammatical unit modifying a noun or pronoun. Like other adjectives, adjective clauses clarify the meaning of a noun by making this meaning more specific. An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun (like who, which, that, or whom) whose antecedent is also the noun that the adjective clause modifies.
The arrow that has left the bow never returns.
That has left the bow is an adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun that. The antecedent of that is arrow, the noun modified by the adjective clause.
The man who is considered the greatest boxer in the land suffered a crushing defeat last week.
Who is considered the greatest boxer in the land is an adjective clause introduced by the relative pronoun who. The antecedent of who is man, the noun modified by the adjective clause.
Some adjective clauses begin with a relative adverb, like when or where.
The restaurant where they serve the best potatoes is Angelo Maxie"s.
Where they serve the best potatoes is an adjective clause introduced by the relative adverb where.
Relative pronouns are sometimes omitted in elliptical constructions.
The things that we know best are the things that we were taught in kindergarten.
The things we know best are the things we were taught in kindergarten.
Both of these constructions are acceptable; the second is an ellipsis in which the two occurrences of the relative pronoun that are omitted.
Since a relative clause begins with a relative pronoun, relative clauses often invert the normal subject-verb-object structure of clauses. This effect is particularly notable when the relative pronoun functions as the object of a preposition.
We rarely forgive those whom we love.
The relative pronoun whom is the direct object of the verb love.
The limousine in which he arrived had tinted windows.
The relative pronoun which is the object of the preposition in.
A verbal is a form of a verb that functions not as a main verb, but rather as a modifier or noun. One type of verbal is a participle.
Participles come in two tenses, past and present. Present participles have the form verb + -ing. Past participles have the same form as the simple past tense verb (usually verb + -ed). Participles function asadjectives.
The exhausted horse took heaving breaths as it ran.
(The past participle exhausted modifies the noun horse. The present participle heaving modifies the noun breaths.)
In certain ways, participles behave like verbs. Participles can be modified by adverbs. Participles derived from transitive verbs can take direct and indirect objects, and participles derived from linking verbs can take subject complements.
A participle, any adverbs that modify it, and any objects or complements associated with it are collectively known as a participial phrase. Like a participle, a participial phrase functions as a single adjective.
Swiftly sending her mother the letter, Joan hoped that her apology would prove more than sadlywasted effort.
(The participle sending is modified by the adverb swiftly and has the direct object the letter and the indirect object her mother. Together, they form the participial phrase swiftly sending her mother the letter, which modifies the noun Joan. The participial phrase sadly wasted modifies the noun effort.)
A participial phrases can precede, follow, or appear at a distance from the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
Having always desired to be President, Eisenhower saw his lifelong dream fulfilled.
Eisenhower, having always desired to be President, saw his lifelong dream fulfilled.
Eisenhower saw his lifelong dream fulfilled, having always desired to be President.
(The participial phrase having always desired to be President may appear before, after, or at a distance from Eisenhower, the noun that it modifies.)
Pronouns with ambiguous antecedents
Pronouns should clearly refer to one antecedent. Sometimes, however, more than one noun within a sentence may be able grammatically to function as a pronoun"s antecedent. Sentences that contain a pronoun with an ambiguous antecedent should be revised to eliminate the ambiguity.
Often, the best way to address this error is to replace the pronoun with the intended antecedent.
Incorrect
When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass table, it broke
Either pitcher or table could function as the antecedent of it. Which one broke?
Correct
When Gloria set the pitcher on the glass table, the pitcher broke.
Incorrect
Jack told James that he had won the lottery.
Either Jack or James could function as the antecedent of he. Which one won?
Correct
Jack told James that James had won the lottery.
A related error is the use of the pronouns this, that, which and it to refer to broad ideas expressed in entire sentences or clauses. In such cases, it"s not clear what element of the sentence or clause should be considered the pronoun"s antecedent. In order to clarify this ambiguity, revise the sentence either by replacing the pronoun with a noun or by supplying a clear antecedent for the pronoun.
Incorrect
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; however, we"ve learned to accept this with only minor complaints.
The pronoun this refers broadly to the entire independent clause more and more often... crimes.
Correct
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; however, we"ve learned to accept urban lawlessness with only minor complaints.
The ambiguous pronoun this is replaced by the more specific modifier and noun urban lawlessness.
Acceptable
More and more often, especially in large cities, innocent citizens find themselves the victims of serious crimes; though no one is happy about urban lawlessness, we"ve learned to accept this with only minor complaints.
The sentence is revised to provide the pronoun this with the more clear antecedenturban lawlessness.
Order of tenses
The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being that the verb expresses. The relationship between the time associated with different clauses within a sentence determines a certain relationship between the tenses of the main verbs of these clauses.
When the verb of the main clause is in the present tense, this relationship is fairly simple: A verb in another clause should be in the past, present, or future tense according to whether its action takes place before, at the same time as, or after the action of the main clause"s verb.
Other tenses can be more challenging. The GMAT often tests the past perfect tense and the present perfect tense.
∙The past perfect tense
When the helper verb had comes before a form of the verb called the participle, the action described took place before another past tense event. The event that occurred in the far past (had + participle verb) is in a tense called the "past perfect."
When the logic of a sentence requires that the time at which the far past event occurred is different from the time at which the regular old past tense event occurred, the past perfect is necessary.
Needs past perfect: By the time Dennis showed up to the baseball game, we waited for three hours.
Correct: By the time Dennis showed up to the baseball game, we had been waiting for three hours.
We had been waiting before Dennis showed up. It is necessary to distinguish between the two different past events.
Sometimes, however, the sentence contains a time clue that clearly differentiates between the two past tense events. In these cases, the past perfect is not wrong, but it is not always necessary.
Correct without past perfect: Because we already boarded up the windows before the tornado hit, our house did not suffer much damage.
Correct with past perfect: Because we had already boarded up the windows before the tornado hit, our house did not suffer much damage.
The sentence above contains the time cues already and before (the tornado hit), so the two events are clearly differentiated. The past perfect is therefore not necessary in order to distinguish between the two time periods, but using the past perfect is not wrong.
If an event in the past perfect did not take place before another past tense event, then it is not acceptable to use the past perfect.
Incorrect: Viola had picked twelve violets from the new garden, so the landscapers are angry with her.
Correct: Viola picked twelve violets from the new garden, so the landscapers are angry with her.
There is no past tense action for had picked to come before in this sentence, so the past perfect cannot be used here.
∙The present perfect tense
To describe an action that began at some point in the past and continues in the present, place the helper verb has (singular) or have (plural) before the past participle form of a main verb This tense is called the present perfect tense (or the present perfect progressive tense if the helper verb pairs has been or have been come before the verb).
The soup kitchen has fed millions of people since its opening in 1980.
Though it is only noon, the ducks have already eaten six loaves of bread today.
Gus is sunburned because he has been working outside all afternoon.
In each sentence above, the present perfect tense correctly describes an action that spanned a period of time in the past and that may be continuing right now. The ending point for an action in the present perfect cannot be specified.
DO NOT use the present perfect with specific time expressions like: yesterday/last week/last year,after/before the storm, when I was a child (time in the past), in the decades following the war (time in the past).
The present perfect is often used with expressions such as: since the war, from 1960 to/until now (time that includes the present), recently/lately, for the past twenty minutes (time that includes the present), in the last week (time that includes the present).
Take home points:
∙Had + past participle verb forms the past perfect tense, which must describe an event that took place before another past tense event.
∙The present perfect tense (has/have + past participle) describes a time that began in the past and could continue; the action"s "expiration date" cannot be specified.
A verb is a word used to express an action or a state of being. The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being that the verb expresses.
Verbs that describe actions or states of being that take place at the same time must be in the same tense.
John whistled while he walks his dog.
(Incorrect. The word while indicates that the two actions expressed by the verbs whistled and walksmust take place at the same time. Therefore, they should be expressed in the same tense. However,whistled is in the past tense, while walks is in the present tense.)
John whistles while he walks his dog.
John whistled while he walked his dog.
(Correct. The verbs in these two sentences are consistent in tense; the first sentence locates these actions in the present, while the second locates these actions in the past.)
George wanted to root for the Giants, but his father sees this as an act of betrayal.
(Incorrect. The verbs wanted and sees describe actions that take place at the same time, but these verbs are in different tenses.)
George wanted to root for the Giants, but his father saw this as an act of betrayal.
(Correct. The verbs wanted and saw describe actions that take place at the same time; both are in the same tense, the past tense.)
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an awkward gerund phrase. A gerund is a form of a verb that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. A gerund phrase is made up of a gerund, any words that modify the gerund, and any objects of the gerund.
Gerund phrases in which the gerund is modified by a prepositional phrase beginning with of are often awkward. Such wordiness may be corrected by transforming the gerund into a noun, a main verb, or a participle.
The actors" performing of the play was magnificent.
(Wordy and awkward. The gerund phrase performing of the play is awkward and unclear. This phrase is the subject of the sentence, and in general, nouns make clearer subjects than gerunds. In addition, main verbs convey the idea of an action more clearly than gerunds do.)
The actors" performance of the play was magnificent.
(Correct. The word performance is a noun. This sentence more clearly expresses the idea of a thing that was magnificent.)
The actors performed the play magnificently.
(Also correct. The word performed is a main verb. This word expresses action more clearly than does the gerund performing.)
The falling of temperatures during the autumn months signals animals to prepare to hibernate.
(Wordy and awkward. The gerund phrase the falling of temperatures is somewhat awkward. The gerund falling serves as the subject of this sentence, while the temperature is really the most important idea in the sentence.)
The falling temperatures during the autumn months signal animals to prepare to hibernate.
(Correct. The participle falling modifies the noun temperatures, which functions as the subject of this sentence. This more clearly expresses the importance of temperature within this sentence.)
Some wordy gerund phrases are nested inside wordy prepositional phrases. Such constructions are generally better expressed as infinitive phrases.
A grapefruit spoon is the most fun utensil I"ve ever used in the eating of breakfast.
(Wordy. The gerund phrase the eating of breakfast functions as the object of the preposition in. This construction is rather difficult to understand.)
A grapefruit spoon is the most fun utensil I"ve ever used to eat breakfast.
(Correct. The infinitive phrase to eat breakfast expresses the sense of this sentence much more clearly than the wordy prepositional and gerund phrases do.)
Wordy use of "being"
Among the wordy or awkward constructions you"ll encounter on the GMAT is the awkward, unpreferable use of the word "being." Because the Sentence Correction section is about choosing thebest version of a sentence, it is important to eliminate awkward and indirect words like being. Be skeptical of the word being, and always check other options for more clarity and conciseness.
Beware of all of the wordy and awkward constructions. The best version of a sentence:
∙almost never contains the word "being"
Awkward: Being in shock by his report card, Marc claimed that he failed for no reason.
Direct: Shocked by his report card, Marc claimed that he failed for no reason.
∙is active
Passive: There was pie that was brought to the party by us.
Active: We brought pie to the party.
∙is concise
Wordy: Tony rented Scream for the reason that he had the purpose of fulfilling his desire of watching a scary movie for over a month.
Concise: Tony rented Scream because he had been wanting to watch a scary movie for over a month.
∙does not usually contain the word "having"
Awkward: Having the most goals scored during the season to be proud about, Gladis bragged to her teammates.
Direct: Proud that she had scored the most goals during the season, Gladis bragged to her teammates.
∙does not contain extra prepositions
Awkward: Miguel locked himself in his room for hours with the intent of causing his parents to become angry.
Direct: Miguel locked himself in his room for hours to make his parents angry.
∙does not contain unnecessary pronouns
Ambiguous and wordy: The zoo added a colorful birds exhibit, and it was worth how much it paid for it.
Direct: The zoo added a colorful birds exhibit, which was worth what the zoo paid for it.
∙avoids the use of an -ing word after a possessive
Awkward: No one predicted the rain"s ruining of our plans.
Direct: No one predicted that the rain would ruin our plans.
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One such set of extra words that appears especially frequently is having been. Having been usually appears as part of a participial phrase that could be more effectively expressed using a main verb or an alternative phrase. Usually, the meaning of the sentence is clearer without having been.
Here are some examples:
Wordy
Having been running the race for an hour, the favorite was still far behind the leader.
Having been is wordy here. We should use a more direct word to relate time.
Better
After running for an hour, the favorite was still far behind the leader.
The time relationship conveyed by having beenis more concisely and effectively expressed byafter.
Wordy
Having been devastated by a tornado two decades ago, the town has finally been rebuilt.
Here, having been gives the sentence two passive phrases, making it wordy and awkward.
Better
The town that a tornado devastated two decades ago has finally been rebuilt.
The participial phrase having been devastated is rephrased as a relative clause with the active main verb devastated.
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an unnecessary relative clause. A relative clause is a word group beginning with a relative pronoun (like who, which, that, or whom) that contains a subject and a verb and that functions as an adjective modifying a noun.
A relative clause whose main verb is a form of be can be wordy. Such clauses often contain modifiers that do not require the presence of a relative clause to convey their meaning.
The boy who was tall and who was handsome had many admirers.
(Wordy. The relative clauses who was tall and who was handsome merely connect the adjectives talland handsome to the noun boy. This could be accomplished more clearly without using a relative clause.)
The tall, handsome boy had many admirers.
(Correct. The adjectives tall and handsome now modify the noun boy directly.)
The scientist who was a genius discovered a new form of matter.
(Wordy. The relative clauses who was a genius merely connects the noun genius to the noun scientist. This could be accomplished more clearly without using a relative clause.)
The genius scientist discovered a new form of matter.
(Correct. Genius, functioning here as an adjective, modifies the noun scientist directly.)
Relative clauses that do not involve forms of the verb be can also be wordy. Sometimes, a relative clause and the noun that it modifies have the same meaning as a single word or a shorter word group. It is generally preferable to use this word or word group rather than the relative clause that provides its definition.
Yesterday, I spoke with a reporter who works for a newspaper.
(Wordy. The relative clause who works for a newspaper modifies the noun reporter. Together, they mean the same thing as a newspaper reporter.)
Yesterday, I spoke with a newspaper reporter.
(Correct. A reporter who works for a newspaper is a newspaper reporter.)
Shin splints often afflict people who go on runs.
(Wordy. The relative clauses who go on runs modifies the noun people. Together, they make up the definition of the noun runners.)
Shin splints often afflict runners.
(Correct. People who go on runs are known as runners.)
Wordy constructions make sentences needlessly difficult to understand because they contain extra words that do not contribute to the meaning of the sentence.
One common type of wordy construction is an unnecessary prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases are made up of a preposition (a word that expresses a relationship) followed by a noun functioning as the object of the preposition.
Wordy prepositional phrases most often begin with the preposition with, of, or in, though they can begin with other prepositions as well.
While in the position of police commissioner, Ray was respected by both his subordinates and city politicians.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrases in the position modifies the noun Ray, and the prepositional phraseof police commissioner modifies the noun position. These phrases convey the idea that Ray was police commissioner.)
While police commissioner, Ray was respected by both his subordinates and city politicians.
(Correct. Police commissioner expresses the same idea as the prepositional phrases in the position of police commissioner in a more clear and direct manner.)
A national debt in the amount of a trillion dollars is nothing unusual for the United States.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrases in the amount modifies the noun debt, and the prepositional phraseof a trillion dollars modifies the noun amount. These phrases convey the idea that the debt is a trillion dollars.)
A trillion-dollar national debt is nothing unusual for the United States.
(Correct.The adjective trillion-dollar expresses the same idea as the prepositional phrases in the amount of a trillion dollars in a more clear and direct manner.)
When the object of a preposition is a verbal or is modified by a verbal, the prepositional phrase is often wordy. There is often a more direct way to express such an idea using a main verb rather than a verbal.
With women from all over the state calling the senator, he decided to vote in favor of the bill.
(Wordy. This long prepositional phrase begins with the preposition with and contains the verbal calling, a participle.)
Women from all over the state were calling the senator, so he decided to vote in favor of the bill.
(Correct. The sentence is rephrased so that were calling is an active verb phrase rather than a verbal and the preposition with is eliminated. This expresses the sentence"s meaning more clearly and directly.)
In the running of the race, the young man became dehydrated.
(Wordy. The prepositional phrase in the running of the race contains the verbal running, a gerund.)
While he was running the race, the young man became dehydrated.
(Correct. The subordinate clause while he was running the race contains the main verb phrase wasrunning. This expresses the sentence"s meaning more clearly and directly.)
Idiomatic prepositions
A preposition is a small word that has a large impact on a sentence. Prepositions hold sentences together by creating relationships between ideas. Prepositions are relationship or directional words. For example:
The amount of water left in the pool has decreased.
By cutting carbs and exercising, Marvin has lost weight.
In the sentences above, of, in, and by are prepositions. The preposition plus the noun after the preposition is called a prepositional phrase. Of water, in the pool, and by cutting carbs and exercising are the complete prepositional phrases.
The noun or -ing word acting as a noun activity (cutting or exercising) that follows a preposition is called the object of the preposition. A preposition can link a noun or a verb to this object. By linking/describing a noun or a verb, prepositions can act as adjectives or as adverbs.
Certain nouns and verbs must be paired with certain prepositions. Some of these noun/verb + preposition pairs do not follow rules; these pairs exist... well, just because. When something exists "just because," it is called an idiom.
The list of noun/verb + preposition pairings that exist "well... just because... " is endless, but the GMAT tests the same pairings over and over again. Make sure to check out the content for "Common idioms" to see a complete list of the most common pairings.
Sometimes, a noun or verb can be paired with several different prepositions, and the correct preposition to use depends on the context of the sentence. Like any other word, each preposition carries with it a different meaning. The preposition used depends on the intended meaning of the prepositional phrase. For example, an object can be above or below something, or an event can occurbefore or after another event.
On the GMAT, the most commonly used prepositions are of, to, and for. Both to and for are commonly used to introduce the purpose, result, or recipient of something. For example:
The athlete stretches to relax his muscles.
I gave the gift to my mother.
I play the violin for fun.
The sandwich is for Samantha.
The preposition of is commonly used to further define a noun; of specifies something about this noun. In this way, the preposition of is often definitional. Of often means related to or characterized by. Of can also indicate ownership. For example:
Last year was a year of hardship for the old lady. (The year was "characterized by" hardship.)
The rungs of the ladder are rusty. (The rungs "belong to" the ladder.)
When answer choices differ because they use different prepositions, think about the relationship between the words connected by the preposition.
The contractor drew up a plan of the new house.
The plan to go to the store first thing in the morning makes sense.
In the first example, the plan is further specified as the one related to the new house; the prepositionof expresses this relationship. In the second example, the preposition to introduces the purpose of the plan.
Again, the list of the most commonly tested idioms is available under "Common idioms." The nouns or verbs that can take several prepositions require an understanding of the relationship between the words connected. Think: Does the preposition indicate ownership? Does it introduce the purpose of something?
Take home points:
i.Certain nouns and verbs must be paired with certain prepositions. Some of these noun/verb + preposition pairs do not follow rules; these pairs exist... well, just because. Read the content for "Common Idioms."
ii.On the GMAT, the most commonly used prepositions are of, to, and for. Both to and for are commonly used to introduce the purpose or result of something. The preposition of is definitional and is commonly used to mean identified by or characterized by or to indicated ownership. When answer choices differ because they use different prepositions, focus on the relationship between the words connected by the preposition.
An argument draws a conclusion based on stated evidence and unstated assumptions that form a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion.
When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw. When an argument"s assumption is reasonable, the argument is valid.
Often, a certain piece of relevant information or the answer to a certain relevant question would be particularly useful in assessing the validity of an argument.
A new technique for municipal water treatment is more expensive than a traditional technique. However, use of the new technique should result in a decrease in a city"s total public utility expenses. The new technique produces cleaner water, so city residents will use more water and thus pay the city more for water treatment services.
Information that might be relevant to establishing the validity of this argument:
The results of a study on whether people"s water usage tends to increase when water becomes cleaner.
This is relevant to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that people use more water when the water supply is cleaner. The results of this study will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The outcome of an analysis of whether the increased payments from residents offset higher costs to the city when water usage increases.
This is relevant to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that when residents use more water, the city makes more money. The results of this study will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The quality of the city"s current water supply compared with the water in several other major cities.
This is not relevant to the validity of the argument. This argument addresses the outcome of a change in water treatment techniques within one city alone. Therefore, the quality of the city"s current water compared with other cities" water does not help establish the soundness of any assumption in this argument.
Another example:
After several years of use, one brand of keys wear down and are no longer able to open a certain brand of locks. The keymaker claims that this wear is due to the materials that this particular lockmaker uses.
Information that might be relevant to establishing the validity of this argument:
The results of an experiment evaluating how quickly the keymaker"s keys deteriorated when used with other brands of locks.
This is relevant to the validity of the argument. This argument assumes that this particular lockmaker uses materials that are especially damaging to keys. The results of this experiement will either affirm or deny this assumption.
The results of an experiment evaluating how long it takes the lock to wear down until it is no longer usable.
This is not relevant to the validity of the argument. This argument addresses the cause of the deterioration of keys, not that of locks. Therefore, the rate at which locks deteriorate does not help establish the soundness of any assumption in this argument.
An assumption is an idea that provides a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion of an argument but that is not explicitly stated in the argument.
Most attempts to strengthen an argument focus on showing one or more of the argument"s assumptions to be true (or at least likely).
One way to do this is to affirm the assumption directly.
Consuming a half-cup of healthy nuts per day has been shown to improve the speed at which certain mental tasks can be performed. Therefore, consuming a half-cup of peanuts per day would improve graduate students" performance on exams.
Two assumptions on which this argument relies are:
1) Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
2) The certain mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts impact graduate students" performance on exams.
Each of the following statements strengthen this argument.
Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
This statement directly affirms the first assumption noted above.
The mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts have an effect on a student"s performance on an exam.
This statement directly affirms the second assumption noted above.
An assumption is an idea that provides a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion of an argument but that is not explicitly stated in the argument.
Most attempts to strengthen an argument focus on showing one or more of the argument"s assumptions to be true (or at least likely).
One way to do this is to affirm the assumption directly.
Consuming a half-cup of healthy nuts per day has been shown to improve the speed at which certain mental tasks can be performed. Therefore, consuming a half-cup of peanuts per day would improve graduate students" performance on exams.
Two assumptions on which this argument relies are:
1) Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
2) The certain mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts impact graduate students" performance on exams.
Each of the following statements strengthen this argument.
Peanuts are considered healthy nuts.
This statement directly affirms the first assumption noted above.
The mental tasks whose speed can be increased by eating healthy nuts have an effect on a student"s performance on an exam.
This statement directly affirms the second assumption noted above.
An argument draws a conclusion based on stated evidence and unstated assumptions that form a logically necessary connection between the evidence and the conclusion. When an argument"s assumption is unwarranted or unlikely, the argument suffers from a logical flaw.
Mikki is the best player in the Wabash Roller Hockey League. Mikki plays for the Wildcats. Therefore, the Wildcats are the best team in the league.
The argument suffers from a logical flaw. It is based on the unwarranted assumption that the team with the best player must be the best team. There may be other factors that determine the ability of a team besides the ability of its best player.
The Arrivederci Eatery on Main Street has recently received the highest rating in the city"s restaurant review guide. Several celebrities, among them the film star Bronco Cantrell, are regular patrons of Arrivederci. Therefore, the high rating received by Arrivederci in the restaurant review guide must be due to the presence of celebrities as regular patrons.
This argument suffers from a logical flaw. It is based on the unlikely assumption that the regular presence of celebrities is the cause of the restaurant"s high rating. It is more likely that the high rating caused the celebrities to visit the restaurant.
Logical flaws can be stated in specific terms or in more general terms.
The argument’s author fails to consider that any of Mikki"s teammates may be significantly worse than the average player in the league.
This is a specific statement of the flaw in the first argument above.
The argument"s author fails to consider that what is true of a part of a group is not necessarily true of the whole group.
This is a general statement of the flaw in the first argument above.
The author fails to consider that celebrities might have begun to frequent Arrivederci after the restaurant received a high rating.
This is a specific statement of the flaw in the second argument above.
The author concludes that one thing was caused by another, whereas the evidence is consistent with the reverse cause-and-effect relationship.
This is a general statement of the flaw in the second argument above.
Passage-based inferences
Not all the points an author wishes to make are stated explicitly in a passage. Readers are often expected to make inferences. An inference is a conclusion that is not explicitly stated in a passage but that is strongly supported by the text. Drawing inferences from a passage is sometimes referred to as "reading between the lines."
Passage-based inferences are those in which the question stem does not provide a specific topic from which the inference will be drawn. Instead, the test-taker must draw an inference from the passage as a whole, or locate the correct section of the passage.
Drawing passage-based inferences often requires readers to compare and contrast the author"s description of two or more topics; it also requires readers to pay close attention to an author"s tone and point of view.
Most important, perhaps, is the ability to eliminate the four invalid inferences in the incorrect answer choices. This entails understanding what cannot be logically inferred from a passage.
Example:
Passage: The Crimean War (1853-1856) is widely known as a catastrophic military exchange, but it also marked the first wartime use of several technologies. Railroads, for example, were never effectively used in tactical warfare before they were employed in this war to transport wounded soldiers and supplies. The Crimean War was the first European war to be photographed, and the first war that was covered live internationally by journalists, due to the invention of the electric telegraph. New types of ammunition was used in traditional weapons such as artillery and bayonets.
What can be properly inferred from this passage? Most notably, the chronological aspect; every invention used for the first time in the Crimean War must never have been used previously. However, the GMAT always includes important details that could lead to tempting, but invalid inferences:
Invalid Inference: The Crimean War was the first war to be photographed.
Invalid Inference: The Crimean War marked the first use of weapons such as bayonets and artillery.
Invalid Inference: The new technologies used made the Crimean War into a military disaster.
Invalid Inference: Before the Crimean War, railroads had only been used to promote peace.
All of these present tricky distortions of facts in the passage. Comparing the answer choices closely to the relevant sections of the passage reveals the errors. Meanwhile, a valid inference will reflect a piece of information in the passage, or connect two pieces of the passage in a direct way that is fully supported by the facts in the passage:
Valid Inference: No European War had ever been photographed before the year 1853.
Valid Inference: New forms of ammunition can be used in traditional weaponry.
Valid Inference: Before the invention of the electric telegraph, international live war reporting was never attempted.
An inference is a statement that can be logically concluded from another statement or statements. Just as an assumption is an unstated but logically necessary part of an argument, an inference is an unstated but logically valid conclusion of a set of statements.
Some inferences are statistical or numerical conclusions that follow from statements expressing quantitative relationships. Such relationships are often expressed in a rather confusing manner, so it can be challenging to ensure that such an inference follows from the given statements.
Given statements:
Half of the children in the class wore jackets today, but there are only a quarter as many coat hooks in the classroom as children in the class. Furthermore, the teacher and the teacher"s assistant both always hang up their jackets on coat hooks.
Possible inferences:
Most of the children who wore jackets to class today aren"t able to hang them on coat hooks.
(Valid statistical inference. Half of the children wore jackets, but there are only a quarter as many hooks as there are children. Therefore, there are half as many hooks as there are children with jackets. Two hooks are taken up by the teacher and the teacher"s assistant. Therefore, there are less than half as many available hooks as there are children with jackets. So most – more than half – of the children with jackets won"t get hooks.)
Objects other than jackets (like backpacks) must take up fewer than a quarter of the coat hooks in the classroom.
(Invalid statistical inference. The only restriction on how these coat hooks are used is that the teacher and the teacher"s assistant each hang their jackets on one hook. While the remaining hooks might be taken up by children"s jackets, they could also be taken up by other objects. While it seems likely that students might hang up their jackets rather than other objects on these hooks, the statements don"t provide adequate support for this inference.)
Explaining observed events
A set of statements may describe an event or events without providing a sufficient explanation for how the event came to occur. An unexplained sequence of events may be explained by a third statement describing a connection between the events.
There is often no single acceptable explanation for a given event. Rather, an event might be validly explained by several different additional statements.
Last night, as I went to sleep, I heard a thunderstorm beginning. When I went outside in the morning, the plants in my garden were all knocked to the ground.
Several additional facts might explain how this thunderstorm led to the destruction of plants.
Valid
The thunderstorm featured a brief but intense hailstorm that destroyed plants all over the neighborhood.
A plant-destroying hailstorm that was part of the thunderstorm is a reasonable explanation for how the thunderstorm caused plants to be knocked to the ground.
Valid
The thunderstorm drove several deer to seek cover in my backyard, trampling everything in their path.
The thunderstorm caused deer to trample everything in the yard. This is a reasonable explanation for how the thunderstorm caused plants to be knocked to the ground.
Invalid
It"s currently the summer, and thunderstorms occur most often during this season.
Addresses only the likelihood of thunderstorms.
Invalid
My backyard is full of groundhogs, which are notorious for knocking over plants.
Provides an alternative explanation for the destruction of plants. Neither of these describe a connection between the thunderstorm and the destruction of plants.
Method of argument
An argument uses evidence (statements of fact) and assumptions (unstated ideas) to reach a conclusion (the argument"s final judgment).
Arguments may cite many types of evidence, but certain methods of reasoning are particularly effective and are therefore used particularly frequently.
Such methods of reasoning include:
Citing an authority
Four out of five dentists recommend Superpaste toothpaste. Therefore, Superpaste must truly be the best toothpaste.
This argument cites the evidence of the opinions of dentists, experts in the field of toothpaste.
Providing an analogy
Superpaste is commonly accepted as the best toothpaste. Superfloss was designed to the same exacting standards of oral hygiene, so it must be the best floss.
This argument cites the evidence of an analogy, the high quality of Superpaste, to support the argument that Superfloss is similarly high in quality.
Some common methods of reasoning to counter an argument include:
Noting ulterior motives
You should not trust Superpaste salespeople"s argument that Superpaste is high in quality. These salespeople are paid by commission, so they will tell you anything to sell you toothpaste.
This argument cites the evidence of an ulterior motive, the financial incentive to sell toothpaste, that casts doubt on the trustworthiness of Superpaste salespeople who argue that Superpaste is high in quality.
Pointing out unconsidered consequences
Superpaste is indeed the best toothpaste for preventing cavities. But what Superpaste salespeople don"t tell you is that it turns some users" teeth blue.
This argument cites the evidence of the unconsidered consequence of turning users" teeth blue to cast doubt on the argument that Superpaste is high in quality.
Demonstrating a logical inconsistency
Children need a high-fluoride toothpaste, while most adults should use a toothpaste with low to moderate amounts of fluoride. Therefore, it"s logically inconsistent to claim the Superpaste is the best possible toothpaste for both children and adults.
This argument illustrates a logical inconsistency of the argument that Superpaste is best for both children and adults. It provides evidence showing that this claim cannot be true.
Run-on sentences
A run-on sentence is a compound sentence that lacks the proper punctuation between the independent clauses that make up the sentence.
The independent clauses that make up a compound sentence must be separated by a semicolon, a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet), or occasionally a colon. Any other punctuation results in a run-on sentence.
Run-on sentences should be corrected either by combining the sentences using proper compound sentence punctuation or by separating independent clauses into two complete sentences.
Run-on
John made the decorations Amy purchased ice and snacks.
The independent clauses John made the decorations and Amy purchased ice and snacksare not separated by any conjunction or punctuation at all.
Complete Sentence
John made the decorations; Amy purchased ice and snacks.
The independent clauses John made the decorations and Amy purchased ice and snacksare now separated by a semicolon.
Run-on
The boy whistled and his dog came running.
The independent clauses the boy whistled andhis dog came running are separated by the conjunction and without any punctuation. This is not correct.
Complete Sentence
The boy whistled, and his dog came running.
The independent clauses The boy whistledand his dog came running are now properly separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction, and.
Run-on
Birds are beautiful creatures, moreover, they are highly intelligent.
The independent clauses birds are beautiful creatures and they are highly intelligent are separated by a comma without a coordinating conjunction. The conjunctive adverb moreoverdoes not provide sufficient separation between these two independent clauses. This is not correct.
Complete Sentence
Birds are beautiful creatures. Moreover, they are highly intelligent.
The independent clauses birds are beautiful creatures and moreover, they are highly intelligent are expressed as individual complete sentences
Sentence fragments
A fragment is a word group that looks like a complete sentence but that is actually only a part of a sentence. Only independent clauses and combinations of independent clauses can function as complete sentences.
Some fragments lack a subject, a main verb, or both.
Walked to and fro in his room.
This sentence has a main verb, walked, but no subject.
John, a successful real-estate attorney and all-around good guy.
This sentence has a subject, John, but no verb.
Near the lake.
This sentence has neither a subject nor a main verb.
Other fragments have a subject and a main verb but are not independent clauses.
Until she lost her keys last week.
This word group has a subject, she, and a main verb, lost. However, the introductory subordinating conjunction until makes this a fragment.
Many fragments can be corrected by connecting them to a nearby sentence.
Fragment
Jill explained the issue in detail to Molly.Changing Molly"s mind about the side that she should support.
The second word group above is a fragment. This word group has neither a subject nor a main verb; changing is a participle.
Complete sentence
Jill explained the issue in detail to Molly,changing Molly"s mind about the side that she should support.
Connecting the second sentence to the first makes this a complete sentence.
Subject-verb agreement with intervening phrases and clauses
Every subject must agree with its corresponding verb in number. Singular subjects agree with singular verbs, and plural subjects agree with plural verbs.
Because this rule is pretty straightforward, the GMAT likes to disguise subject-verb agreement in three main ways.
∙By injecting filler, like prepositional phrases and modifying clauses, between the subject-verb pair
∙By using tricky subjects, like collective nouns or indefinite pronouns
∙By inverting a sentence, or placing the subject after its verb
Ignore the filler between a subject and its verb.
The picture needs to be dusted.
It is easy to see that the subject of the sentence above is the singular noun picture. The singular noun agrees with the singular verb needs. (Remember: Singular verbs end in -s; plural verbs do not.)
The picture of flowers, which is hanging on the wall between the windows, needs to be dusted.
The picture is still the subject of the sentence above!
Any time options on a Sentence Correction question differ because one uses the singular form of the verb and one uses the plural form, subject-verb agreement is being tested. Find the subject, determine whether it is singular or plural, and choose the correct form of the verb.
∙Ignore prepositional phrases when checking for the subject and verb. A main subject will neverbe inside of a prepositional phrase.
∙Ignore adjective clauses when checking for the main subject-verb pair. Each adjective clause contains its own subject and verb, and this subject-verb pair must also agree. Adjective clauses begin with which, that, who, whose, and whom.
∙Ignore anything set off by commas after the subject when checking for subject-verb agreement.
∙Ignore describing phrases that come between a subject and a verb. Describing phrases come right after the noun they describe and often begin with -ing words.
The GMAT loves to put a noun that is opposite in number of a verb"s subject before this verb. For example:
Incorrect: The picture of flowers are beautiful.
Correct: The picture of flowers is beautiful.
The incorrect sentence above may seem right, because the plural flowers comes right before the pluralare. However, the subject is the singular picture. Don"t be fooled just because a singular noun is next to a singular verb, or a plural noun is next to a plural verb; the verb"s subject may in fact be quite far from the verb. If you"re having a hard time finding the subject, spot the verb and think: Who or what performs or corresponds to this action?
Take home points:
∙Ignore the filler between a subject and verb. The GMAT loves to inject modifiers between a subject and a verb. Identify the subject and verb every time you read a sentence. Ignorable modifiers include prepositional phrases, adjective clauses, and participial phrases.
∙Any time options on a Sentence Correction question differ because one uses the singular form of the verb and one uses the plural form, subject-verb agreement is being tested. Find the subject, determine whether it is singular or plural, and choose the correct form of the verb.
Inverted sentence structures
Every subject must agree with its corresponding verb in number. Singular subjects agree with singular verbs, and plural subjects agree with plural verbs.
Because this rule is pretty straightforward, the GMAT likes to disguise subject verb agreement in three main ways:
∙By injecting filler, like prepositional phrases and modifying clauses, between the subject-verb pair
∙By using tricky subjects, like collective nouns or indefinite pronouns
∙By inverting a sentence, or placing the subject after its verb
When a subject comes after its verb:
Typically, a subject comes before its verb.
However, when a modifying phrase, like a prepositional phrase, is the only element in a sentence before the verb, the subject must come after the verb. Take a look at the sentences below:
Heavy is the head that wears the crown.
第六篇: 莫里尔法案名词解释
军机处： 官署名。清代辅佐皇帝的政务机构。雍正七年(1729)，因与准噶尔部作战，为了军务，设立军机房，挑选内阁中谨慎可靠的中书办理机密事务，1732年，又改称军机处。乾隆后，成为定制，并渐渐成为最高中枢机构。军机处的中枢地位和作用超过了内阁，但始终不是个独立的、正式的衙门。军机大臣，大臣无定员，由皇帝从内阁大学士、六部尚书、侍郎中特简任用。军机处设军机章京，，各八人，轮流担任缮写诏旨、记载档案、查核奏议等具体工作。又有军机行走，人值办事。军立后，议政王大臣会议被废止，标志着清代君主集权发展到了顶点。
安史之乱 安史之乱是玄宗末年边镇守将安禄山和史思明掀起的反唐叛乱。玄宗天宝十四年(公元755年)十一月，身兼平卢(今辽宁朝阳)、范阳(今北京)、河东（今山西太原西南）三镇节度使的安禄山以诛杀奸臣杨国忠为名起兵反唐。763年成功平叛。安、史叛乱虽然被扑灭，但是长期的战争缺使社会生产遭到了极大的破坏，开元盛世所积累的社会财富一时消耗殆尽。安史之乱后，大唐王朝再也没有了昔日的繁荣富强，成为由盛转衰的转折点。
绍兴和议 南宋与金订立的和约。绍兴十一年（1141），宋金议和签订条约，但和议确定了宋金之间政治上的不平等关系，结束了长达十余年的战争状况，形成了南北对峙的局面。
玄武门之变： 玄武门之变是唐初李世民兄弟争夺皇位继承权的政变。唐高祖李渊称帝后，立长子李建成太子，次竺民苎秦王。但在建立唐朝的过程中，李世民战功卓越，大大威胁了李建成的地位。太子为巩固自己位，拉拢四弟李元吉共同对付李世民。双方结党营私，斗争愈演愈烈。武德九年(626)六月四日，苎先发制人，设伏于宫城北门玄武门，将一同参加早朝的李建成、李元吉射杀，并挟持了唐高祖，发变夺权，史称“玄武门之变”；玄武门之变后，李世民被立为太子，之后，李渊被迫交出实权，李世式即位，是为唐太宗
改土归流 改土归流是指改土司制为流官制。土司即原民族的首领，流官由中央政府委派。中国清代
雍正年间在西南一些少数民族地区废除土司制，实行流官制的政治改革。为了解决土司割据的积弊，雍正四年（1726），云贵总督鄂尔泰建议取消土司世袭制度，设立府、厅、州、县，派遣有一定任期的流官进行管理。雍正帝对此甚为赞赏，令其悉心办理。六年，又命贵州按察使张广泗在黔东南推行改土归流政策。在废除土司世袭制度时，对土司本人，根据他们的态度给以不同的处理。对自动交印者，酌加赏赐，或予世职，或给现任武职。对抗拒者加以惩处，没收财产，并将其迁徙到内地省份，另给田房安排生活。在设立府县的同时，添设事机构。清政府在改土归流地区清查户口，丈量土地，征收赋税，建城池，设学校；同时废除原来土司的赋役制度，与内地一样，按地亩征税，数额一般少于内地，土民所受的剥削稍轻。
行省制 这是中国古代地方行政制度之一。行省，亦称行中书省，元朝地方官署名，为中书省派驻于地方的机构，元朝建立后，设十路宣抚司为地方最高行政机构，另委派中书省官员分赴各地办理具体事务，行使中书省权力。初因事而设，后逐渐成为辖有一定区域的常设机构。凡钱粮、兵事、农耕、漕运等事务，均受其管理。全国除“腹里”（今河北、山东、山西地区）直隶中书省，吐蕃地区受宣政院管辖外，其余地区设有岭北、辽阳、河南、陕西、四川、云南、甘肃、江浙、江西、湖广等行省。行省长官为丞相，行省之下分路、府、州、县，在边远地区分道设臵宣慰司。明初，沿袭元制，于地方设行中书省，臵平章政事和左右丞相，总管一省军、政、司法。洪武九年（1368年），废行中书省，在全国陆续设臵十三个承宣布政使司，简称布政司。臵左右承宣布政使各一人，掌管一省民政和财政；设提刑按擦使司，掌司法；都指挥使司，掌军队。合称“三司”。清，沿袭之。
八旗制度 中国清代满族的社会组织形式。满族的先世女真人以射猎为业，每年到采捕季节，以氏族村寨为单位，由有名望的人当首领，这种以血缘和地缘为单位进行集体狩猎的组织形式，称为牛录制。总领称为牛录额真，努尔哈赤于明历二十九年建立黄、白、红、蓝四旗，称为正黄、正白、正红、正蓝，旗皆纯色。四十三年，努尔哈赤为适应满族社会发展的需要，在原有牛录制的基础上，创建了八旗制度，即在原有的四旗之外，增编镶黄、镶白、镶红、镶蓝四旗。把后金管辖下的所有人都编在旗内。八旗制度的特点是以旗统人，即以旗统兵。凡隶于八旗者皆可以为兵。八旗制度从正式建立到1911年辛亥革命后清朝覆灭，共存在296年。它是清王朝统治全国的重要军事支柱，
四时捺钵（bó）； 四时捺钵是流动的国家政治中心。四时捺钵制是契丹在国家政治生活中保留的一项特殊制度和文化习俗，四时即指一年中的春、夏、秋、冬。捺钵亦称纳巴、刺钵等，指辽朝皇帝贵族们所从事的与契丹民族游牧习俗相关的行在、营地迁徙和游牧、渔猎等活动，是在辽朝初期因俗而治”的二元政治体制下的客观延续。
驱口： 金时已有“驱口”一词，简称“驱”，指战争中“被俘获驱使之人”。他们当中除战俘外，还有因债务或犯罪所致，也有迫于租赋或饥荒而卖身为“驱”的，驱口另有户籍，称驱户、驱丁，和一般编民有别，在法律上，驱口“与钱物同”，是主人财产的一部分，主人可以随便买卖和馈赠，驱口一部分用于手工业生产和家内劳动，大部分则从事农业生产。